Many African people believe that sexual violence only affects females, perhaps because most male victims of sexual violence do not report their experiences.⁽²⁾ This CAI paper argues that male sexual violence (MSV) is very real and stresses the need for male victims of sexual violence to ‘speak out’ after their experiences, so that organisations and governments will acknowledge the existence and effects of this violence and take proactive measures to address it.

MSV and African conflicts

In June 2006, the International Symposium on Sexual Violence in Conflict and Beyond called upon United Nations (UN) member countries and other humanitarian organisations, to increase their efforts to prevent sexual violence. During ongoing conflict, sexual violence is often used as a weapon for genocide, crimes against humanity and other war crimes.⁽³⁾ Whilst females are most vulnerable in such mutinous situations, males often suffer the same misfortune, though their cases regularly go unreported. As a result, it becomes difficult to ascertain the exact regularity of male sexual violence.^(4,5)

One in four men is sexually violated in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).⁽⁶⁾ According to experts, this is the highest recorded prevalence of MSV in a conflict zone in recent years. About 140 cases of male rape were reported in the Central African Republic (CAR), while in Liberia, a survey sampling about 1666 adults revealed that 32.6% of male combatants (118 of 367) [had] experienced sexual violence while 16.5% (57 of 360) were forced to be[come] sexual servants.”⁽⁷⁾ In Mozambique, men were used as “mattresses.” They were instructed to lie down while the perpetrators (rebels) raped women, some of whom were the men’s own wives, daughters and sisters, on top of them.⁽⁸⁾ In Tanzania and Namibia, 13.4% and 3.6 % respectively of males were found to have experienced sexual violence respectively.⁽⁹⁾ According to one study in Uganda, the central region was found to have the highest prevalence of male sexual violence.⁽¹⁰⁾ Subsequent to the end of Apartheid, testimonies to the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) revealed that men had been sodomised with metal rods.⁽¹¹⁾ Sexual violence acts are clearly “aimed at victimising men and should be evaluated beyond the effects of the trauma,”⁽¹²⁾ even when women are involved.

An insignificant issue?

Despite its widespread occurrence, research about MSV in Africa is still limited. Unfortunately, under-reporting ⁽¹³⁾ and the low number of studies conducted on MSV means the issue is not recognised as requiring urgent attention.⁽¹⁴⁾ Many male victims of sexual violence find it irrelevant to report their experiences, yet such experiences have serious effects such as depression, low self-esteem, self-isolation and blame.⁽¹⁵⁾ The severity of the effects of MSV depends on the victims’ sexual orientation and the gender of the perpetrator,⁽¹⁶⁾ but there is no question that MSV is an issue that deserves more attention.

Although gay men are often considered the only perpetrators of male sexual violence, men, regardless of their sexual orientation, perpetuate sexual violence, as do women.⁽¹⁷⁾ The notion that women perpetrate acts of sexual violence on men is often considered ridiculous.⁽¹⁸⁾ Indeed, “…men who dare acknowledge that they were sexually abused by women are cruelly laughed at and humiliated.”⁽¹⁹⁾ For example, in Uganda, a teenage boy who was sexually assaulted by an older woman was laughed at whilst reporting his case to the police, who later instructed him to go back home and prove his “manhood.”⁽²⁰⁾ Defilement of males by females is often ignored, which means female perpetrators of MSV are hardly ever held accountable for the damage they cause.⁽²¹⁾

An undeniable truth

Males raping males is more rampant in prisons than anywhere else.⁽²²⁾ “Male-male rape is a cause without a voice, with very few people, survivors, activists and the like who are willing and able to speak on its behalf.”⁽²³⁾ Studies conducted in a selected number of South African prisons revealed that men who have been raped by inmates are not considered ‘men’ anymore, but ‘women,’ commonly referred to as “wives” or “wyfies” – the ‘real men’ are the perpetrators of the rape.⁽²⁴⁾ In 2005, a BBC article titled Horror of rape in East African Prisons revealed evidence of male rape in Kenyan and Zanzibar prisons.⁽²⁵⁾ This was the first time male victims of prison rape revealed their experiences. However, the wardens in these prisons were quick to dismiss the accusations, claiming that male rape implies homosexuality and is therefore an act unknown to them.

Perhaps few male victims of rape report their ordeals because they do not categorise their experiences as rape.⁽²⁶⁾ As the prison wardens pointed out, male-rape implies homosexuality, an act proscribed and unspoken in various African cultures. Homosexuality is illegal in many African countries, unlike South Africa. In Malawi, two men faced 14-year imprisonment for organising a same-sex marriage ceremony.⁽²⁷⁾ In Senegal, nine gay activists were prosecuted in 2009, but later released after national and international intervention.⁽²⁸⁾ In Uganda, a now pending homosexuality Bill proposes execution of citizens found guilty of homosexual acts. Arguably, the flurry around the Bill led to the death of David Kato Kasule, a prominent gay activist.⁽²⁹⁾ When men are raped, they may face tremendous personal and social insecurity and fear being judged as homosexual. In these cases, they opt to remain quiet in order to avoid being labelled as homosexual.

Homophobia, including stereotypes, hate crimes and laws against homosexuality, has such as strong hold on male identification in many cases, that it facilitates a very complex situation of sexual violence against men and almost guaranteed silence of victims.

Concluding remarks

MSV is a prevalent issue that must be addressed. The solution is not silence, but to encourage men and boys to ‘speak out’ – let their voices be heard and the dark foundations of homophobia exposed and challenged. Only then can sexual violence against men be addressed proactively. Governments and community leaders must be the starting point of zero tolerance of sexual violence for all citizens.

NOTES:

(1) Contact Catherine Akurut through Consultancy African Intelligence’s Gender Issues’ Unit ( gender.issues@consultancyafrica.com This e-mail address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it ).
(2) Davies, M, Pollard, P. & Archer, T., 2006. Effects of perpetrator gender and victim sexuality on blame toward male victims of sexual assault. Journal of Social Psychology, 146(3), pp. 275-291.
(3) Lewis, D. A., 2009. Unrecognized Victims: sexual violence against men in conflict settings under international law. Wisconsin International Law Journal, 27(1), pp.1-49. http://hosted.law.wisc.edu.
(4) Ibid.
(5) Tewksbury, R., 2007. Effects of sexual assaults on men: physical, mental and sexual consequences. International Journal of Men’s Health, 6(1), pp.22-35.
(6) Melhado, L., 2010. Rates of sexual violence are high in Democratic Republic of the Congo. International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 36(4), pp.210-210.
(7) Sivakumaran, S., 2010. Lost in translation: United Nations response to sexual violence against men and boys in situations of armed conflict: International Review of the Red Cross. http://www.icrc.org.
(8) Farrag, H. H. Endangering forced migration, victimization, masculinity, and the forgotten voice. http://repository.forcedmigration.org.
(9) Callender, T. and Dartnall, L., Mental Health Response for Victims of Sexual Violence and Rape Resources – Poor Settings. Briefing Paper. Sexual Violence Research Initiative (SVRI). http://www.svri.org.
(10) Nayiga, J., 2006. Prevalence and Determinants of Sexual Violence in Uganda, Makerere University Population Secretariat. http://svriforum2009.svri.org.
(11) Sivakumaran, S., 2007. Sexual violence against men in armed conflict. The European Journal of International Law, 18(2), pp.253-276.
(12) Farrag, H. H. Endangering forced migration, victimization, masculinity, and the forgotten voice. http://repository.forcedmigration.org.
(13) Tewksbury, R., 2007. Effects of sexual assaults on men: physical, mental and sexual consequences. International Journal of Men’s Health, 6(1), pp.22-35.
(14) Russell, W., 2007. Sexual violence against men and boys. Forced Migration Review, 27, http://www.fmreview.org.
(15) Callender, T. and Dartnall, L. Mental health response for victims of sexual violence and rape in resource–poor settings - briefing paper. Sexual Violence Research Initiative (SVRI). http://www.svri.org.
(16) Ibid.
(17) Ohio Department of Health, 2004. When men are raped – Appendix 13 to the ODH Sexual Assault Protocol, http://docs.google.com.
(18) Kali Munro, ‘Male sexual abuse victims of female perpetrators: society’s betrayal of boys’, 2002, http://www.kalimunro.com.
(19) Ibid.
(20) ‘Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation’, Uganda Child Rights NGO Network (UCRNN), 2004, http://www.ucrnn.net.
(21) Naker, D., 2005. Violence against children: the Voices of Uganda children and adults raising voices. http://www.raisingvoices.org.
(22) Farrag, H. H. Endangering forced migration, victimization, masculinity, and the forgotten voice, http://repository.forcedmigration.org.
(23) Ibid.
(24) Gear, S. 2009. Manhood, violence and coercive sexualities in men’s prisons: dynamics and consequences behind bars and beyond. Concerned African Scholars Bulletin 83, http://concernedafricascholars.org.
(25) Mariam Omar, ‘Horror of rape in east african prisons’, BBC News, 21 July 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk.
(26) Ohio Department of Health, 2004. When men are raped – Appendix 13 to the ODH Sexual Assault Protocol, http://docs.google.com.
(27) Jonathan Clayton and Mabvuto Banda, ‘Malawian gay couple Steve Monjeza and Tiwonge Chimbalango face jail’, The Times, 22 May 2010, http://www.timesonline.co.uk.
(28) ‘How many gays are there?’, Avert International HIV & AIDS Charity, 2010, http://www.avert.org.
(29) Max Delany and Godfrey Olukya, ‘David Kato, Uganda gay activist, brutally slain’, Huffpost World, 27 January 2011, http://www.huffingtonpost.com.

Written by Catherine Akurut ⁽¹⁾