Alternative energy sources, such as wind or sunlight, derive energy without expending natural resources or harming the environment. This is in contrast to energy obtained from fossil fuels – still the most widely used non-renewable source of energy in the world.⁽²⁾ The world has become more aware of the non-renewable nature of fossil fuels and the negative by-products of business-as-usual combustion. However, a number of progressive initiatives around the world are creating new opportunities and technologies to allow the efficient use of alternative energy sources.

This paper highlights the growing need for energy in Africa as a potential for investment in alternative energy sources on the continent. A discussion of environmental implications of fossil fuel combustion, versus renewable energies is offered. Germany is currently leading the world in terms of renewable energy production,⁽³⁾ but what is the status quo in Africa and how is the continent faring against the rest of the world? A discussion of Africa’s performance and activities in the renewable energies sector is provided.

Need for energy

A considerable number of impoverished and developing countries, which need high energy consumption levels to sustain growth, are found in Africa. Frequently the necessary infrastructure is not in place for this increased demand – a problem which is evidenced in the number of power outages in many African countries.⁽⁴⁾ A constant demand for cheap reliable energy has thus become imperative. Currently, the cheapest short-term energy source remains fossil fuels because they are abundant and easily accessible, but they are also non-renewable and, as a result, this resource will eventually be depleted. Before this happens, there is an urgent need to consider other viable sources of energy to promote development in a sustainable manner.

Approximately one third of the world’s population living without electricity is situated in Africa.⁽⁵⁾ A number of African countries are only able to supply, on average, 15% of their populace with electricity.⁽⁶⁾ There are, however, exceptions to this – Kenya, Libya and South Africa are considered substantially more electrified.⁽⁷⁾ Due to the lack of energy infrastructure, in developing countries, these are prime strategic locations for the implementation of natural and renewable energy sources. Due to the fact that fossil fuels are rapidly depleting, it is more worthwhile to develop and construct new energy technology as opposed to investing in fossil fuels. This is an area that the rest of Africa and indeed, the world, can get involved in, as investing in renewable energy sources will be financially and environmentally beneficial in the long term. Unfortunately, there is a lack of financial capacity to introduce new renewable energy technologies in most developing countries. These countries would thus benefit from international assistance in the form of financial aid from developed countries – which can simultaneously offset their own carbon budgets.⁽⁸⁾

The birth of alternative energy: Slow, but sure

The first introduced alternative energy sources were in the form of windmills that used the power of the wind to grind wheat into flour or to pump water from wells. The more modern alternative energy sources are based on the concept of these earlier windmills in that they harness the natural environment to create emission-free and sustainable energy. The most important examples of these energy sources include solar, wind, hydroelectric, tide, geothermal, biofuel and nuclear power. Biofuel is not strictly emission–free, although it requires minimal preparation compared to current fossil fuels and therefore the energy balance is relatively equal.⁽⁹⁾ These alternative energy sources are, in general, expensive to build but cheap to maintain, with large returns on costs and thus the long-term benefits are economically viable.

A pivotal point in promoting the use of renewable energy sources occurred when the Kyoto Protocol came into effect. This Protocol requires signatory states to record the levels of Greenhouse Gasses (GHGs) in their countries and report these figures to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These GHG levels are publically available and provide benchmarks from which to improve on. Further, the Protocol provides support for signatories. Renewable energies are laudable for their minimal impacts on the environment. The implications on the physical environment and on human health of both fossil fuels and renewables are offered below.

Weighing up the pros and cons of renewable energy sources

In the past, energy has been relatively accessible and abundant. Only now, with our rapidly increasing population size and our dwindling oil reserves, has energy become limited.⁽¹⁰⁾ The amplified burning of fossil fuels for energy has led to more pronounced indications of climate change – an increase in average global temperatures, together with increased occurrences of extreme weather events such as floods and droughts⁽¹¹⁾ - due to the increased release of GHGs into the atmosphere.⁽¹²⁾ Carbon dioxide is one of the leading GHGs released through fossil fuel combustion. Further implications of climate change include, inter alia, changes in animal physiology, geographical range shifts, increased occurrence and spread of diseases, and reduced crop security.⁽¹³⁾ With regard to human health, respiratory diseases such as asthma and lung cancer have also been linked to airborne pollutants which originate from fossil fuel power plants.⁽¹⁴⁾ Renewable energy sources are generally emission-free and therefore are the better option in terms of having less of a negative impact on the environment and human health. There are, however, unavoidable negative effects associated with using alternative energies.

Nuclear reactors are one example of a potentially dangerous alternative energy source. These reactors use highly radioactive substances, like uranium, to create energy and the physical risk of these power plants is high. However, modern technology and safety precautions reduce the probability of meltdowns from occurring although they cannot always be prevented. For example, during the earthquake and subsequent tsunami in Tokyo on 11 March 2011, the Fukushima nuclear power plant sustained damage leading to a meltdown.⁽¹⁵⁾ This is an indication that nuclear reactors are never entirely fail-safe and that detailed consideration of their placement and use is required. If used appropriately and if adequate safety techniques are followed, nuclear power is very safe and efficient. Though this source produces radioactive material, it is considered highly effective and safe if associated waste is disposed of correctly. However, there is also always a chance that radioactive material may leak from the power plant as was the case at the Fukushima power plant in Tokyo. Natural disasters are devastating and uncontrollable and they inevitably compromise the safety of a nuclear power plant.

Wind turbines, which are considered one of the most environmentally friendly energy sources, also have their own impact. For example, wind turbines are considered detrimental to human health due to the infrasound emitted from the rotating blades.⁽¹⁶⁾ In addition, there is the added mortality of bats and birds and the apparent aesthetic burden on the landscape.^(17;18) Furthermore, wind farms have been discovered to alter meteorological patterns because of the large turbulence given off as the blades of the turbine rotate.⁽¹⁹⁾

Different alternative energy technologies have varying pros and cons – this paper only considers the main ones of each of the aforementioned types.⁽²⁰⁾ Excluding the manufacturing process, solar power, which uses the energy from the sun to harness electricity, is generally emission-free. This type of energy source is, however, expensive to produce, requires sunlight to generate electricity and requires regular cleaning. Wind energy, which has been the focus of much criticism and investigation, has on one hand resulted in a number of negative effects towards humans and the environment and requires a good amount of wind to produce electricity. On the other hand though, a factor of favourability of wind farms is that they can be situated in croplands or livestock-foraging areas, therefore making the land suitable for a dual purpose. Hydroelectric energy disrupts the natural water movements in rivers and dams as it requires the storage of large volumes of water in expensive dams. The negative environmental effects of changing the natural flow of rivers and estuaries are evident and recognised around the world.⁽²¹⁾ These effects include fish migrations and resultant unhealthy ecosystems and damaged habitats.

The benefits of tidal energy tend to be sporadic – with, on average, two tides a day, little energy is produced through the switching of the two tides.⁽²²⁾ This intermittent energy supply will be similar to that of solar and wind turbines and similar alterations of flow dynamics may be exhibited, as is the case on wind farms. Geothermal energy is accessed by drilling wells into hot rocks in the ground where water can be heated to produce steam to turn a turbine. Unfortunately, the distance to hot rocks is usually too far to be financially feasible and therefore geothermal power plants are limited to areas where geological faults occur where heated rocks are closer to the surface of the earth.⁽²³⁾ These power plants are relatively cheap, depending on the depth required, and as long as they are operated correctly, they are practically free of emissions.

Biofuel is mainly used to power motor vehicles. Unfortunately, the majority of biofuels originate from crops and because of our increasing global population, food security is lower and, increasingly, more land is required for food.⁽²⁴⁾ However, new techniques such as using algae as a biofuel source are becoming more popular to assist in reducing the dependence on land for biofuels. Biofuels are convenient because they are useable in many modern vehicles, providing their own infrastructure with minimal to zero adjustments. There are, however, still many controversies regarding the actual environmental impacts of this source of energy and, as such, they have not been as widely implemented or accepted as they should.^(25;26)

Employing alternative energy – not without limitations

Environmentally-friendly alternatives to the harmful fossil fuels have not been more widely implemented for a variety of reasons. One reason for this is that the infrastructure for the use of non-renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels is already in place, at least in African countries with decent electrical coverage. To move from this to an entirely new energy source would entail extremely high capital costs as most of these alternative energy sources require large, expensive power plants.^(27;28;29) Furthermore, as many corporations are focussed on short- term rather than long-term benefits, large amounts of capital have been invested in the current energy power plants and to abandon these will result in large losses. Moreover, there is some resistance to several alternative energy sources as a result of their negative impacts, as discussed earlier in this paper. Regardless of this resistance and subsequent slow progression to cleaner energy sources, numerous legislative instruments and protocols have been created to generate incentives to change to these cleaner energies.^(30;31)

Climate change projections suggest that even if we stopped emitting GHGs today, the levels would still increase because of the over-use and depletion of fossil fuels that has been created. Therefore, effort must be made to reduce the volume of these GHG levels as soon as possible – a point which has been acknowledged by various governments. Despite this, many plans for GHG reductions appear inadequate. For example, the South African Integrated Resource Plan (IRP 2010) aims to reduce energy from coal to 48% by 2030.⁽³²⁾ Surely this will be too late, as with current population increases, the country would be burning the same – if not more coal – to produce nearly 50% of the population with energy.⁽³³⁾ South Africa finds itself in a dilemma – the economy requires sufficient baseload power to create employment but renewable energies are not adequate enough to create the requisite baseload power. This inadequacy impacts on the country’s balance of payments which means slow economic growth and the inevitable rising unemployment rates, slow job growth, and potential for social, economic and political instability.

The future and renewable energies: How is Africa fairing?

As mentioned earlier, almost one-third of the global population without access to electricity lives in Africa. This means that there is a massive potential demand for this resource in this part of the world. With minimal infrastructure and related maintenance costs, alternative energy sources are ideal for developing countries. There are also many programmes that facilitate renewable energy developments in Africa. One of these programmes is the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) loan initiative whereby attractive return rates and assistance in initial costs are provided.⁽³⁴⁾

Solar energy in Africa is a potentially good source of energy as the continent receives, on average, 325 days a year of bright, relatively uniform sunlight.⁽³⁵⁾ However, solar energy in Africa is predominantly on small-scale use and the only solar energy project linked to the electrical grid is in the Sahara desert.⁽³⁶⁾ This project is funded by European companies and banks and aims to provide energy to sections of North Africa which can also be exported to Europe.⁽³⁷⁾

The potential for wind energy use in Africa is considerable.⁽³⁸⁾ Winds are generally strongest along the coastlines and these are the optimal locations for wind farms. Currently, the Koudia Al Baida wind farm in Morocco is the largest wind farm on the continent with two others in Tangier and Tarfaya.⁽³⁹⁾ Plans are also being made for similar set-ups in South Africa and Kenya. Potential geothermal energy also exists along the East African Great Rift Valley of which Kenya has the largest usage.⁽⁴⁰⁾ Ethiopia utilises geothermal power but on a much smaller scale with plans for exploration and construction for Zambia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Uganda.

The challenge that Africa faces in terms of embracing renewable energy options is that, being composed of developing countries, the majority of economies are struggling and rely on energy-intensive sectors such as mining, for example, to boost economic growth. Strong growth from the mining sector and a reduction of energy-intensive activities do not compute. Such sectors require increases in baseload (i.e. around the clock) power and the only sources that can do this are fossil fuels and nuclear power. Another challenge is that Africa is also focussed on the alleviation of poverty and therefore, besides renewable, it is necessary to take into consideration the improvement of power stations to boost economic activity and assist in poverty reduction.

If one considers the rest of the world in terms of renewable energy sources, Germany stands out as the overall leader.⁽⁴¹⁾ They may not have the largest energy production from wind farms like those in China,⁽⁴²⁾ nor do they have North America’s geothermal energy;⁽⁴³⁾ but with their policies and incentives, they continue to lead the global renewable energy race. Cementing this progress is the fact that Germany was the largest producer of solar power equipment in 2008, regardless of the fact that they only receive about 64 days of sun a year.⁽⁴⁴⁾

Concluding remarks

Overall, it appears that Africa, as a continent, is lagging behind the rest of the world in terms of renewable energy production. This does not, however, suggest that Africa is not progressing. The leading, more developed, African countries have policies and incentives in place which promote the construction and use of renewable energy. However, the lesser developed countries are lacking in this respect as a result of inadequate funding for these projects. Developed countries worldwide appear to be progressing towards cleaner energy use but to change an entire country’s energy sources takes time. Africa is concerned about losing jobs due to lower economic activity as a result of renewable energies being unable to supply the baseload power needed to power energy and labour intensive sectors such as mining. Despite this, there is a need to move beyond playing the ‘jobs card’ as an excuse for the argument against moving towards renewable energies and a lower carbon economy. The perceptions of realism must be reconciled with the climate science. There is also a need to reconsider the perception that renewables cannot deliver sufficient power. The main consideration, from an environmental point of view, is, taking into account the benefits and ill-effects of renewable energies, witherto from fossil fuels?

NOTES:

(1) Contact Wayne Brazier through Consultancy Africa Intelligence’s Enviro Africa Unit (enviro.africa@consultancyafrica.com).
(2) S.M. Enzler, ‘Characteristics, origin, application and effects of fossil fuels’, Lenntech Water Treatment Solutions, http://www.lenntech.com.
(3) Ariel Schwartz, ‘4 reasons why Germany is a renewable energy success story’, CleanTechnica, 29 July 2008, http://cleantechnica.com.
(4) Fleshman, M., 2005. Laying Africa’s roads to prosperity. Africa Renewal, 22(4), p. 12.
(5) Adeyemi Yinka, ‘About 650 million Africans may lack access to electricity by 2030, delegates told at CSD4’, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 26 October 2005, http://www.uneca.org.
(6) Labib Daloub, ‘Libya reinforces the Mediterranean ring’, Transmission and Distribution World, 1 March 2008, http://tdworld.com.
(7) Adeyemi Yinka, ‘About 650 million Africans may lack access to electricity by 2030, delegates told at CSD4’, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 26 October 2005, http://www.uneca.org.
(8) Jenna Goodward and Alexia Kelly, ‘Bottom line of offsets’, World Resources Institute, August 2010, http://www.wri.org.
(9) Poushali Ganguly, ‘Pros and cons of biofuel’, Buzzle.com, http://www.buzzle.com.
(10) ‘World’s oil will run out in ten years’, The Insider, 19 October 2003, http://www.theinsider.org.
(11) Erich Pica, ‘Connecting the dots between extreme weather and climate change’, Huff Post, 23 September 2011, http://www.huffingtonpost.com.
(12) Deborah Zabarenko, ‘Population growth demographics spur climate change’, Reuters Environmental Online Report, 11 October 2010, http://www.reuters.com.
(13) Walther, G. et al., 2002. Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature, 416, pp. 389-395.
(14) ‘Air pollution and respiratory disease’, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences – National Institutes of Health, http://www.niehs.nih.gov.
(15) ‘Nuclear fuel meltdown at Fukushima Daiichi confirmed’, Environment News Service, 13 May 2011, http://www.ens-newswire.com.
(16) Calvin Martin, ‘Wind turbines produce major infrasound. Period. No question about it’, Wind Turbine Syndrome, 22 March 2010, http://www.windturbinesyndrome.com.
(17) Wallace P. Erickson et al., ‘Avian collisions with wind turbines: A summary of existing studies and comparisons to other sources of avian collision mortality in the United States’, National Wind Coordinating Committee, August 2001, http://www.west-inc.com.
(18) Good, J., 2006. The aesthetics of wind energy. Human Ecology Review, 13(1), pp. 76-89.
(19) ‘Wind farms impacting weather: Environmental engineers detect turbines’ turbulence effects’, Science Daily, 1 October 2005, http://www.sciencedaily.com.
(20) ‘Pros and cons of renewable energy – a detailed explanation’, Green World Investor, 4 April 2011, http://www.greenworldinvestor.com.
(21) Lori Pottinger, ‘Environmental impact of large dams: African examples’, International Rivers, 1 October 1996, http://www.internationalrivers.org.
(22) ‘Pros and cons of tidal energy use’, Energy Consumers Edge, http://www.energy-consumers-edge.com.
(23) Ibid.
(24) ‘The pros and cons of biofuels’, EarthTalk, http://environment.about.com.
(25) Poushali Ganguly, ‘Pros and cons of biofuel’, Buzzle.com, http://www.buzzle.com.
(26) ‘Biofuel – the pros and cons’, The Green Car Website, April 2011, http://www.thegreencarwebsite.co.uk.
(27) Robert L. Bradley Jr., ‘Renewable energy: Not cheap, not “green”’, Cato Policy Analysis No. 280, Cato Institute, 27 August 1997, http://www.cato.org.
(28) Stephen Karekezi, ‘Renewable energy in Africa: Prospects and limits’, Renewable energy development, Paper presented at the workshop for African energy experts on operationalizing the NEPAD energy initiative, 2 - 4 June 2003, http://www.un.org.
(29) ‘The advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy’, School energy monitoring, http://www.solarschools.net.
(30) Ogunlade Davidson et al., ‘Energy policies for sustainable development in South Africa’, Energy Research Centre University of Cape Town, April 2006, http://www.iaea.org.
(31) Stephen Karekezi, ‘Renewable energy in Africa: Prospects and limits’, Renewable energy development, Paper presented at the workshop for African energy experts on operationalizing the NEPAD energy initiative, 2 – 4 June 2003, http://www.un.org.
(32) South African Department of Energy, ‘Integrated Resource Plan for electricity 2010-2030’, Government Gazette No. 34263, Volume 551, 6 May 2011, http://www.doe-irp.co.za.
(33) Ibid.
(34) William Hirshman, ‘Solar loan program provides missing link in Kenya’, Photon International, January 2002, http://www.photon-magazine.com.
(35) Abdoulaye Yansane, ‘Solar power in Africa’, National Solar Power Research Institute, Inc., http://userwww.sfsu.edu.
(36) ‘Rwanda: Rays of sunshine for the economy’, GTZ, http://www.gtz.de.
(37) Ibid.
(38) Davor Habjanec, ‘Africa – high wind energy potential not used enough’, Interesting energy facts, 5 July 2009, http://interestingenergyfacts.blogspot.com.
(39) ‘Renewable energy in Africa’, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org.
(40) John Lund, Derek Freeston and Tonya Boyd, ‘Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2010 worldwide review’, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress, 25 April 2010, http://geotermia.org.mx.
(41) Ariel Schwartz, ‘4 reasons why Germany is a renewable energy success story’, CleanTechnica, 29 July 2008, http://cleantechnica.com.
(42) ‘World market for wind energy gains momentum after a weak year in 2010’, World Wind Energy Association (WWEA), 29 August 2011, http://www.wwindea.org.
(43) Alison Holm, Leslie Blodgett, Dan Jennejohn and Karl Gawell, ‘Geothermal energy: International market update’, Geothermal Energy Association, May 2010, http://www.geo-energy.org.
(44) Dan Harding, ‘Germany: Your unlikely world leader in solar power’, Calfinder, 4 August 2010, http://solar.calfinder.com.

Written by Wayne Brazier (1)