Peace-building, or post-conflict reconstruction and development (PCRD) as it is termed by the African Union (AU), is a recent concept which has gained widespread acceptance in international politics, and within development circles. In 1992 the former United Nations (UN) Secretary General, Boutros Ghali, published a document titled ‘An Agenda for Peace’ which defined peace-building as an action which identifies causes and support structures which will tend to strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse into conflict.⁽²⁾ During the 1990s, the concept of peace-building became more expansive; arguably to the point of incoherence. This was as a result of growing awareness of the complexity of post-conflict transitions and the multiple, simultaneous needs of post-conflict societies.⁽³⁾ However in 1995 Ghali introduced a ‘Supplement to an Agenda for Peace’document in which he explains that peace-building is a process that facilitates the establishment of durable peace, and tries to prevent the recurrence of violence.⁽⁴⁾ The document addresses the root causes and effects of conflict through reconciliation, institution building, as well as political and economic transformation.⁽⁵⁾ In other words, peace-building consists of many programmes (short, medium, and long term) which simultaneously address the causes and consequences of conflict. It also requires a coherent and multi-dimensional response by a broad range of actors.⁽⁶⁾ In addition, peace-building ensures (or attempts at the very least) the creation of an environment conducive to peace and the increase of women’s involvement on all levels.⁽⁷⁾

Peace-building emphasises the incorporation of women. This is because most peace agreements are usually framed in a gender-neutral language with the assumption that the contents are equally applicable to, and equally appropriate for, the needs of both men and women despite the fact that they experience conflict differently.⁽⁸⁾ By so doing, they ignore gender-specific experiences of conflict such as rape, which affects women almost on a daily basis.⁽⁹⁾ However, the AU, in its PCRD document, emphasises the importance of addressing women’s peace-building needs within the definition. It explains peace-building to be a set of short, medium and long term multi-dimensional programmes carried out by states and non-state actors at the local, national, regional and international levels, to address the needs of the affected country and the victims of violence (mostly women, children, the displaced and refugees).⁽¹⁰⁾ In addition, peace-building requires women to be central actors in developing peace-building initiatives with their influence spreading beyond local and regional women’s organisations.⁽¹¹⁾ Also, all programmes should cater to the needs and wishes of all parties in the conflict including women.⁽¹²⁾

This CAI paper analyses the importance of addressing women’s peace-building needs in terms of the above mentioned elements as stated by the AU in its PCRD. It is argued that women’s needs can only be addressed if a gender component is included in all peace-building programmes.

Dimensions of peace-building

The scope of the AU’s PCRD strategy encompasses six indicative elements: security; political transition, Government and democratisation; humanitarian emergency assistance; socio-economic reconstruction and development; human rights, justice and reconciliation; and women. This section will briefly summarise how these six elements relate to women.

1) The Security dimension of the AU’s PCRD refers to activities undertaken to create a secure and safe environment for the affected population. It specifically emphasises the introduction of a well-blended and comprehensive Disarmament, Demobilisation, Rehabilitation and Reintegration (DDRR) programmes, as a starting point to consolidate security. It pays particular attention to women victims of violence who are often forgotten during the implementation of such programmes.⁽¹³⁾ In order to address women’s specific security needs, it requires the addressing of Gender-Based Violence (GBV) and the transformation of the security sector and institutions such as the police.⁽¹⁴⁾ Nonetheless, security is a basic prerequisite for sustainable development within the African renaissance vision.⁽¹⁵⁾ It is therefore important to include issues which affect women’s security, such as rape and female genital mutilation, in order to ensure women’s development.⁽¹⁶⁾

2) Political transition, government and democratisation in terms of the AU’s PCRD involve activities that seek to increase women’s political participation, both in the private and public spheres. It emphasises women’s involvement in the peace process, overseeing their participation in the political transition phase, and facilitating their political participation in order to address their political needs, which are often ignored due to traditional patriarchal practices.⁽¹⁷⁾ Specific reference is made to the development of legitimate political institutions which could promote the political rights of women, and building the capacity of political parties and civil society.⁽¹⁸⁾ This dimension also requires the reformation of the public sector and the promotion of good political governance in order to ensure the political representation of women in the public sphere.⁽¹⁹⁾

3) Humanitarian emergency assistance in the AU’s PCRD refers to activities which seek to save the lives and maintain the human dignity of all those affected by conflict. It requires the supporting of reintegration programmes for the displaced and vulnerable groups (especially women), the development of psycho-social programmes such as GBV, trauma counselling, and the provision of training in order to assist female victims of violence.⁽²⁰⁾ This is because most often, Government reunification and psycho-social support programmes tend to ignore the important needs of women. Most often, the literacy levels amongst women are extremely low especially as a result of the post conflict situation, the demand to care for their families and a lack of access to existing socio-economic programmes. It is therefore imperative to involve women in such programmes.

4) Socio-economic reconstruction and development as a dimension of peace-building in the PCRD, broadly refers to activities which seek to integrate women in the socio-economic sphere in order to alleviate poverty. As a result, it requires the resuscitation of socio-economic activity amongst women, and the reconstruction of the economy and infrastructure in order to include women’s contribution to the economy.⁽²¹⁾ It also emphasises the implementation of economic policies that foster women’s development, in order to address their basic needs as well as improve on their living conditions.⁽²²⁾

5) The human rights, justice and reconciliation requirement of the PCRD involves activities that acknowledge and promote human rights, advocacy and justice. As a result, the PCRD requires the promotion of women’s human rights and ensures that advocacy and monitoring programmes respond to the needs of women.⁽²³⁾ Specific mention is made of the reformation of the justice system and reinforcement of the rule of law, in order to address women’s specific needs.⁽²⁴⁾

6) The AU in its PCRD includes women as its last dimension and emphasises the inclusion of gender-mainstreaming in all peace-building activities. They stress the importance of including gender policies in all peace-building activities since they affect women, who not only suffer from underlying inequalities with regards to their access to decision-making and power, but also suffer disproportionately from the effects of violence.⁽²⁵⁾ Furthermore, in order to fight against discrimination, the PCRD requires governments to embark on trainings and sensitisation activities with regard to the incorporation of gender in post conflict reconstruction operations.⁽²⁶⁾ Specific mention is made on the introduction of gender sensitive policies and strategies and the empowerment of women and girls in all aspects of life.⁽²⁷⁾ In addition, the PCRD again emphasises the legislation of women’s rights to own land, property and inheritance.⁽²⁸⁾

Importance of addressing women’s peace-building needs

Besides the fact the AU, in its PCRD, emphasises the incorporation of women in all the above dimensions, it also includes their incorporation in post-conflict reconstruction. This is essential because, for example, most security measures designed to address women’s concerns, fail because external actors and warring parties strike deals without the presence of women’s activists.⁽²⁹⁾ As a result, their particular rights and security needs such as their protection against gender-based violence and their right to demand accountability for crimes committed against them are overlooked.⁽³⁰⁾

With regards to the PCRD’s requirement to address women’s exclusion from politics, an integrated approach whereby both women and men are included in determining their political needs, is essential in order to achieve a good system of democratic governance.⁽³¹⁾ This is because women are often ignored in activities in both private and public sectors, which seek to promote nation-building even though in most cases, they play an unsung role in promoting good governance at the grassroots level. Also, in order to address women’s exclusion from politics, it is therefore important to emphasise women’s access to political participation, political power and decision-making structures.⁽³²⁾ In addition, the strategic roles of women farmers in market and subsistence agriculture are often bypassed in the design and implementation of post conflict reconstruction programmes, which include disseminating tools and seeds technology. It is therefore imperative to train both women and men to collaborate equitably and effectively by placing importance on gender equality in the design and implementation of development programmes.⁽³³⁾

The development of psycho-social programmes such as trauma counselling and gender-based violence for women is specifically stated in the PCRD. This is imperative because women often suffer from psychological problems following the abuses they suffer during conflicts. These stem from a wide range of war-related traumas and untreated injuries, including those associated with forced sexual relations and unattended childbirth.⁽³⁴⁾ They also form a majority of the vulnerable groups (internally displaced persons, ex-combatants, refugees) who are dependent on this type of assistance. Thus, the lack of adequate humanitarian emergency assistance weakens women’s capacity because they, most often, provide assistance in reintegrating returnees.⁽³⁵⁾

Although women are important not only as perpetrators or victims of crimes during war, they are also witnesses to crimes under investigation. Women’s inclusion in truth commissions and tribunals (as set out in the PCRD’s requirement) has lent a deeper sense of compassion to the formal process.⁽³⁶⁾ Their participation as professional staff on truth commissions and tribunals has led to improvements in victim support and witness protection programmes.⁽³⁷⁾ Also, there is greater recognition of the trauma that victims and witnesses have and continue to experience. As a result, increased attention can be paid to women’s needs.⁽³⁸⁾ Nonetheless, the inclusion of the rights of women in the human rights discourse has brought gender-based violations such as rape, gender-based violence, discriminatory legislation and policies that promote inequality between women and men, to the limelight.

The inclusion of women as a separate dimension by the AU in its PCRD clearly indicates the importance of including them in peace-building efforts by the AU. Addressing women’s peace-building needs is important since they have, in all major African conflicts, been subjected to war crimes including rape, physical violence, assault and prolonged physical and psychological insecurity, emanating from the loss of social networks and protection.⁽³⁹⁾ Women have been, in extreme cases, “targets of war, part of the war game and/or booty.”⁽⁴⁰⁾

Concluding remarks

Addressing women’s peace-building needs is specifically emphasised by the AU in its PCRD. In all six indicative elements of peace-building, emphasis is placed on the incorporation of women in all aspects of peace-building and development. This is important because women are often ignored during the design and implementation of post-conflict reconstruction programmes and high levels of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment and lack of socio-economic opportunities are prevalent amongst them. However, peace-building programmes can only succeed if women’s needs are taken into account during the design and implementation of reconstruction programmes, as set out by the AU in its PCRD.

Written by Maureen Lifongo ⁽¹⁾

NOTES:

(1) Contact Maureen Lifongo through Consultancy Africa Intelligence’s Gender Issues Unit ( gender.issues@consultancyafrica.com).
(2) ‘An agenda for peace, preventive diplomacy, peace-making and peace-keeping’, United Nations, 1992, http://www.un.org.
(3) Call, T.C. and Cousens, E.M., 2008. Ending war building peace: International responses to war-torn societies. International Studies Perspective, 2008(9), pp. 1-21.
(4) ‘Supplement to an Agenda for Peace: Position paper of the Secretary General on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations’, United Nations, 1995, http://www.un.org.
(5) Ibid.
(6) De Coning, C., 2008. Understanding Peace-building: Consolidating the Peace Process. Conflict Trends, 4, http://www.accord.org.za.
(7) De Coning, C., 2005. Civil military coordination and UN peace-building operations. African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 5(2), http://www.accord.org.za.
(8) Chinkin, C, and Charlesworth, H., 2006. Building omen into peace: The international legal framework. Third World Quarterly, 27(5), pp. 937-957.
(9) Porter, E. J., 2007. Peace-building: Women in International Perspective. Routledge: New York.
(10) Report on the Evaluation of a Framework Document on Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD), African Union, 2006, http://www.africa-union.org.
(11) Anderlini, S. N., 2007. Women Building Peace: What They Do, Why It Matters. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
(12) Ibid.
(13) ‘Report on the Evaluation of a Framework Document on Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD), African Union, 2006, http://www.africa-union.org.
(14) Ibid.
(15) Juma, M. K., ‘African Women for Peace: Gender Justice in Post- conflict Countries in East, Central and Southern Africa’, UNIFEM, 2005, http://www.chr.up.ac.za.
(16) Ibid.
(17) ‘Report on the Evaluation of a Framework Document on Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD), African Union, 2006, http://www.africa-union.org.
(18) Ibid.
(19) Ibid.
(20) Ibid.
(21) Ibid.
(22) Ibid.
(23) Ibid.
(24) Ibid.
(25) Ibid.
(26) Ibid.
(27) Ibid.
(28) Ibid.
(29) Hudson, H., 2006. Human security and peace-building through a gender lens: Challenges of implementation in Africa. Danish Institute for International Studies, 37, pp. 1-30.
(30) Ibid.
(31) Zuckerman, E. and Greenberg, M. E. 2006. The gender dimensions of post-conflict Reconstruction: The challenges in development aid, UNU-WIDER 62, pp. 1-26.
(32) Ibid.
(33) Ibid.
(34) Ibid.
(35) Juma, M. K., ‘African Women for Peace: Gender Justice in Post- conflict Countries in East, Central and Southern Africa, UNIFEM, 2005, http://www.chr.up.ac.za.
(36) Anderlini, S. N., 2007. Women Building Peace: What They Do, Why It Matters. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
(37) Ibid.
(38) Ibid.
(39) Juma, M. K., ‘African Women for Peace: Gender Justice in Post- conflict Countries in East, Central and Southern Africa, UNIFEM, 2005, http://www.chr.up.ac.za.
(40) Ibid.