Chapter 3

What is Coastal Management?

This chapter explores the nature and role of coastal management, and covers the following topics:

Matching supply and demand
Towards integrated coastal management.

INTRODUCTION

The last chapter showed that there is a growing demand for the services provided by coastal ecosystems. The main task of coastal management relates to the need to match the demand for coastal services with the supply of such services.

MATCHING DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Our coast is a multiple-use system with a variety of users benefiting from the many available services. Using an ecosystem for one use only is likely to limit the overall benefits to the South African economy. Coastal resources are often used in this narrow way, however, and this situation is made worse by fragmented and uncoordinated management. As a consequence, the demand for coastal services is often greater than the capacity of coastal ecosystems to supply such services. This situation is likely to result in coastal resources being over-exploited or damaged. Negative impacts result as demands are met by uncontrolled withdrawal of services. Coastal ecosystems then become degraded, reducing their ability to sustain the flow of services. For example:

Limited public access. In some areas, mining companies have exclusive access to areas of the coast. This limits physical access for other sectors that wish to use alternative ecosystem services, such as harvesting marine organisms or tourism and recreational activities.

Inappropriate development. Coastal dunes play a vital role in protecting the coastline against wind and waves. But property developers aim to get as close to the beach as possible, often destroying dune vegetation, to obtain a sea-view. This ignores the coastline protection service provided by dune ecosystems. Inappropriately located structures are exposed to erosion and high risk from coastal processes, such as storms. Substantial repair and maintenance costs can then result, and these are frequently borne by other taxpayers. A range of other problems can also result, such as problems of wind-blown sand experienced by neighbours, loss of scenic value and lost opportunities for other developers.

Pollution. Urban stormwater runoff can cause bacterial contamination of coastal waters, reducing bathing, surfing and associated recreational and tourism opportunities.

As the population grows and the demand for coastal services increases, these impacts are likely to have a negative effect on the supply of coastal services and thus the overall benefits to users. In a multiple-use system, it is not wise to make decisions on the basis of the benefits gained by a single user, when other potential users could also be gaining.

The inter-dependence between users and uses of coastal services requires a dedicated, co-ordinated and integrated approach to coastal management. Such an approach will help to maintain the health of coastal ecosystems and the flow of services upon which coastal communities depend. It is only in this way that the full potential of coastal ecosystems will be realised and sustained.

The next section explores the concept of integrated coastal management.

TOWARDS INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

A recent United Nations report defines coastal management as:

A continuous and dynamic process that unites Government and the community, science and management, sectoral and public interests in preparing and implementing an integrated plan for the protection and development of coastal ecosystems and resources.

It states that the goal of coastal management is:

… to improve the quality of life of human communities which depend on coastal resources, while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems.

There is usually intense competition for coastal services. Human activities place different demands on coastal ecosystems, often resulting in disputes over appropriate patterns of use. Decisions about the appropriate balance between competing demands must be made continually, bearing in mind the range of possible consequences. Coastal management is the ordered process that allows these decisions to be made and implemented, and the results to be monitored, so as to promote sustainable coastal development.

A distinguishing feature of coastal management is the high level of integration it requires. Table 4 indicates that integration is required across geographic boundaries, time scales, sectors, political and institutional boundaries, disciplines, and across the policy, management, education and research arenas.
Traditionally in South Africa planning has been separated from management. Coastal management requires an integrated approach to planning and management, coupled with supporting activities and mechanisms.

Coastal planning refers to the ongoing process of analysing the coast in order to prepare plans to guide decision-makers about how to allocate and use coastal resources and where to locate different human activities on the coast.
Coastal planning provides the context for a range of coastal management activities that include:

Development facilitation and assessment of coastal development proposals. This refers to promoting and/or restricting physical development within the framework of a coastal plan, where such a plan exists. Where no such plan exists, consideration should be given to the wider implications of the proposal.

Day-to-day coastal resource management. This refers to the hands-on process of maintaining and restoring coastal resources where necessary or appropriate, and administering and regulating human activities which may have an impact on these resources.

Coastal management activities should be integrated with other management and development assessment processes, preferably into a single integrated development assessment procedure for all planning, environmental and developmental assessments.

Supporting activities and mechanisms include applied research, long-term monitoring, education, law, institutional capacity building, and finances.

Integrated coastal management thus involves a range of planning, management and support activities that must be co-ordinated in order to address issues of real concern. The process of coastal management involves policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluating the results, and, where appropriate, revising both the policy and implementation measures to ensure that the issues of concern are addressed.

Table 4: Types of Integration Required in Coastal Management

Geographic integration

All coastal systems are inter-connected, and no single organisation can have control over all or even most of the inputs and outputs from one part of the coast to another. Attention must therefore be given to the inter-connections between the land and sea environments, which can extend over vast distances.

Integration across time scales

The coast is significantly affected by the cumulative impact of many individual decisions made and actions taken by resource users and Government.

Attention must therefore be given to the consequences of these decisions and actions and to the short-, medium-, and long-term implications of such decisions and actions.

Integration across sectors

There are a wide range of human activities at the coast, including agriculture, commerce, fishing, forestry, industry, military use, mining, nature reserves, recreational and residential development, subsistence resource use, tourism and transport infrastructure. Attention must therefore be given to "horizontal integration" of sectors traditionally seen to be separate, together with the associated Governmental agencies that influence planning and management of coastal systems and resources.

Political and institutional integration

A great challenge is posed by the fact that the boundaries of coastal ecosystems go beyond local, provincial and often national areas of authority. Attention must therefore be given to "vertical integration" between spheres of Government, from the local to international level, and to integration between institutions in Government, civil society and the private sector which influence the planning and management of coastal ecosystems and resources. Ideally, legislative and planning frameworks and development assessment procedures should be integrated.

Integration across disciplines

Coastal systems are multi-faceted, dynamic and complex. In addition, the consequences of coastal management decisions are often subject to considerable uncertainty. These characteristics make it difficult, if not impossible, to determine cause and effect relationships, and to predict accurately the potential impacts of human activities. Attention must therefore be given to integrating knowledge and understanding from the natural and social sciences, the humanities and the design professions (including engineering, planning and architecture). In addition, scientific research must be integrated with other sources of information, including the knowledge of coastal communities and users.

Integrating policy, management, education and research

Coastal management is a process that requires creative partnerships to be established between Government, civil society and the private sector. To manage coastal ecosystems and resources for the benefit of current and future generations, such partnerships will need to be based on the integration of a range of considerations, including policy, management, education and applied research.

Developing an integrated coastal management approach is not an easy task, and needs to be worked towards, progressively, over time. Such an approach is particularly difficult to initiate in the context of strongly entrenched sectoral management practices. Nonetheless, if we are to sustain the benefits provided by coastal ecosystems, there is a need to work towards integrated coastal management. First, attention needs to be drawn to the subject of coastal management. Then, awareness needs to be built around the subject. Dialogue needs to be fostered amongst the various role-players. Co-operation can then be promoted, followed by co-ordination of activities. Finally, integration can be realised.

The last three chapters have provided an introduction to the subject of coastal management. They have addressed the following questions: What is the coast?; What is the value of the coast?; and What is coastal management? This chapter has highlighted the challenge of matching supply and demand. It has drawn attention to the need to promote a dedicated, co-ordinated and ultimately integrated approach to coastal management. Doing so, however, will require a good understanding of the characteristics of our coast and the issues of concern. Part B of this document provides an overview of the South African coast. It also describes the coastal regions in more detail, and outlines issues identified through this programme to date.

Section B

The South African Coast

Chapter 4

Our Coast in Context

This chapter gives a brief overview of coastal management experience in other countries, and looks at:

The international context
South Africa in the African context.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter briefly looks at the international context for coastal management and draws particular attention to the African context.

THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT

Two-thirds of the world’s population live at or near the coast. By the year 2030, three-quarters of the world’s population will be living at the coast. Each year, the world’s coastal ecosystems provide about R70 billion to the global economy. The coast is a major generator of global economic benefits and opportunities, but is subject to intense and growing pressure.

As long as people have lived at the coast and used its resources, there has been some form of coastal management. Traditional societies that depend on coastal resources have had elaborate management systems that have often sustained coastal communities and resources for generations. But in many societies, particularly in more recent times, coastal management efforts have not been able to sustain the benefits that the coast provides.

The term "coastal management" came into common use with the implementation of the United States Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. The Act recognised that a sectoral management approach, focusing on individual resources such as fisheries, or activities such as transport, was not working. A new coastal management approach was needed. The Act provided coastal states with incentives to prepare and implement integrated plans focused on selected issues of national and local significance. Since then, the concept of coastal management has been refined and it has been applied to many different situations in countries around the world.

Changes in Coastal Management since the 1970s

A shift from a resource-centred approach to a people-centred approach: Coastal management is increasingly concerned with governance issues rather than exclusively technical considerations.

The perceived role of science has shifted from "driving" the policy process to informing the process: The role of science is increasingly seen to be one of informing policy debates and clarifying options for and the implications of different policies.

A shift from a "restoration and mitigation" approach to an "anticipatory and precautionary" approach: This shift has been prompted by the experience of cumulative impacts of individually insignificant actions, the high cost and frequent failure of restoration efforts, and the high degree of uncertainty in coastal decision making.

Expansion of the tools used to achieve coastal management objectives: A wider range of regulatory and non-regulatory tools is now used in coastal management. There is greater emphasis on proactive and co-operative approaches, with regulation and enforcement used increasingly as a last resort.

Many international treaties and regional agreements have addressed the subject of coastal management in the last few decades. South Africa is a party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which are the major international frameworks guiding nations in governing coasts. The Law of the Sea Convention establishes the rights and duties of nations within the 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone. In 1992, UNCED built on this legislative framework, providing further guidance to nations by emphasising the need for sustainable development and integrated management of the coast. There are now about 150 integrated coastal management efforts in over 60 coastal states around the world. Increasingly, developing countries are using integrated coastal management as a distinct management approach to address coastal challenges.

SOUTH AFRICA IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT

The coast makes an enormous contribution to the economic and social well-being of people in Africa. It contributes over R4 000 billion to the African economy. Thirty eight of continental Africa’s 53 independent states are coastal states, and about 18% of Africa’s population live within 60km of the coast. South Africa’s coast supports about 30% of its population, and our coast has one of the highest coastal population densities in Africa about 81/km², compared to the average African density of 55/km².

In 1985, western Indian Ocean nations signed the Eastern African Regional Seas Action Plan and a number of protocols to promote regional co-operation in order to improve management of the marine and coastal environment. In 1993, ministers from throughout Eastern Africa convened in Arusha, Tanzania, and signed a resolution stating their commitment to sustainable coastal development and management. In 1996, a second ministerial meeting was held in the Seychelles. Participants assessed their own progress in meeting the goals set forth in the Arusha resolution, re-confirmed their commitment to coastal management, and developed an agenda for progress over the next three years. For the first time, South Africa participated in this regional forum.

These ministerial meetings resulted in several regional integrated coastal management activities and a number of workshops. More recently, in July 1998, South Africa participated in a pan-African conference on sustainable integrated coastal management. The conference was held in Maputo and is part of the ongoing region-wide effort to promote better coastal management. A consistent and key recommendation which emerged from these meetings and workshops is the need for countries to develop a national policy for integrated coastal management. Currently, several African nations — Mozambique, Tanzania and South Africa — are undertaking national coastal policy initiatives.

Our Coastal Policy initiative has much to learn from, and hopefully contribute to, the experiences elsewhere in Africa and beyond. Effective integrated coastal management requires a sound understanding of the characteristics of the South African coast.

The next chapter presents an overview of our coast.

Chapter 5

An Overview of our Coast

This chapter provides an overview of South Africa’s coast in terms of the following factors:

The biophysical setting
Natural resources
The social setting
Human settlement
The economic setting
The legal and institutional setting.

INTRODUCTION

Our coast extends for about 3 000 km from the border of Namibia to Mozambique. It links the east and west coasts of Africa and connects our continent to the Indian, Atlantic and vast Southern Oceans. Historically, it is the place where the original inhabitants first met the European settlers and were displaced by them. To this day, our coast is a place to draw from the riches of the sea and conduct trade with distant lands, as well as being a special place to live, work and relax.

Our coast is very diverse, in terms of a number of factors – its biophysical setting, natural resources, social setting, human settlement patterns, and its economic, institutional and legal setting. This chapter outlines the main characteristics of each of these factors.

THE BIOPHYSICAL SETTING

The character of our coast is shaped by its location at the southern tip of Africa. This setting determines the climatological, geological, oceanographic, hydrological and biological character of our coast.

Climate, currents and sediment movement

Large-scale atmospheric systems over southern Africa and the Atlantic, Indian and Southern Oceans control the patterns of weather and climate. The west coast is characterised by southerly winds and low rainfall. The south-west coast is subject to southerly winds in summer and rain-bearing westerly winds in winter. In contrast, the east coast experiences good rainfall, mostly in summer. Rainfall generally increases along the east coast as one moves north from East London to Mozambique (800 to 1 300 mm). Along the west coast, rainfall decreases as one moves north from Cape Town to Namibia (greater than 700 mm to less than 100 mm). South coast rainfall is moderate and variable (400 to 1 000 mm), with a maximum in the Garden Route area which experiences year-round rainfall (see Figure 4).

The oceanic setting of South Africa is strongly influenced by the Agulhas Current and the Benguela Current System (see Figure 5). The eastern shores are washed by the warm, nutrient-poor waters of the Agulhas Current that flows south from tropical latitudes off Mozambique and Madagascar. In contrast, the western shores are washed by cold, nutrient-rich waters drawn up (referred to as upwelling) from deeper layers in the sea. This upwelling results from southerly winds blowing parallel to the coastline. These waters support highly productive marine systems and are the centre of South Africa’s fishing industry. The east-west contrast is seen in the 7oC difference between the average annual temperature of Port Nolloth and Durban – both located at similar latitudes.

The cold coastal waters do not evaporate easily because of the large-scale stable climatic weather patterns, which result in the west coast receiving very little rainfall. Average annual rainfall at Port Nolloth (60 mm) is a tiny fraction of that at Durban (1 100 mm). Along the south coast, upwelling is patchy and occurs irregularly under easterly winds. The Agulhas Current follows the edge of the continental shelf and is situated far offshore of the south coast. Coastal waters in this region alternate between warm Agulhas Current water and cold upwelled water.

Most of our coast has a moderate (1-2 m) to high (2-3 m) wave energy environment, and experiences a predominantly south-westerly swell direction. The result is an overall northwards drift along the shores of both the west and east coasts. This drift transports between one and two million tons of sediment past any given point on either coast each year. About 1 700 km of our coast is made up of sandy beaches and 1 300 km are either rocky or mixed rock and sand shores.

Rivers, Estuaries and Islands

Our coast is also strongly influenced by rivers that bring water, sediments, nutrients and pollutants to the coast. Along the east coast, short, strong and fast-flowing rivers drain the steep slopes. East of Port Elizabeth, these rivers carry large silt loads, in excess of 400 tons of sediment per km2 per year. West of Port Elizabeth, most rivers drain sandstone catchments and carry much smaller silt loads, typically about 150 tons per km2 per year (note that some larger catchments, such as the Sundays and Gamtoos, have sediment yields similar to those of KwaZulu-Natal). Along the west coast, the low rainfall and flat land result in few rivers that flow all year round. The largest river, the Orange, drains half of the country, including the mining and industrial heartland of the Gauteng area, and enters the sea at the border of Namibia. There are no large rivers flowing south into South Africa from neighbouring states. But there are a few large rivers that flow from South Africa to enter the sea in Mozambique (e.g., Nkomati and Limpopo).

Our coast has 343 estuaries. Estuaries are river systems that have, or can have, contact with the sea. These are distributed along the coast as shown in Table 5.

Table 5: South Africa’s Estuaries

Namibia to Olifants River (407km)	9 estuaries
Olifants River to Berg River (137km)	5 estuaries
Berg River to Cape Agulhas (635km)	36 estuaries
Cape Agulhas to Cape Padrone (815km)	62 estuaries
Cape Padrone to Mtunzini (745 km)	225 estuaries
Mtunzini to Mozambique (267km)	6 estuaries
TOTAL	343 estuaries

(After Heydorn 1989)

The total area of estuaries in South Africa is about 600 km², of which about 400 km² is along the 570 km KwaZulu-Natal coast. Variations in climate, topography and catchment geology give rise to a wide variety of estuary types in South Africa.

South Africa has jurisdiction over 21 islands. Most of the islands occur off the west coast near Saldanha and in False Bay, with a cluster of six islands in the vicinity of Port Elizabeth. Two islands, Marion and Prince Edward Islands, are some 2 000 km south of Cape Town.

The general physical setting of South Africa results in striking differences in the nature of the east, south and west coasts, and gives rise to a rich and varied set of natural resources.

Flora and fauna

The nature of the predominant climatic systems, sea surface temperature, geographic location and topography directly affect a region’s temperature, humidity and rainfall. These physical factors influence the distribution of plants and animals along the coast. Flora and fauna have been classified, according to their similarities, into three biogeographical regions – the cool temperate region on the west coast, the warm temperate south coast between Cape Point and East London and the sub-tropical east coast which extends up to Mozambique. In broad terms, plants and animals are distributed according to the distinctive physical characteristics of the three biogeographic regions. Figure 6 shows the gradual transition from the dry succulent Karoo on the west coast to the moist coastal bushveld on the east coast. The west coast marine environment is characterised by cold upwelling waters and has low species diversity and large populations of some species.

For example, the seal colony at Kleinsee is reported to be the largest mainland seal colony in the world. Desert conditions along this section of coast result in sandy nutrient-poor soils and sparse succulent Karoo vegetation.

The south coast is a transition region between the cool dry west coast and the warm moist east coast, and shows characteristics of both areas. The marine environment has a high biological diversity and moderate productivity. The landward environment is dominated, especially in the Western Cape, by the fynbos kingdom, which is the smallest and yet most diverse of the five plant kingdoms in the world. Fynbos is found between the south-western Cape up to about Port Elizabeth. Coastal vegetation for most of the rest of the south coast can broadly be described as a mix of thicket, savannah and grassland.

The east coast becomes increasingly warm, humid and tropical northwards, and is characterised in both the marine and land environments by increasing species diversity and smaller populations. The Hibiscus Coast has the highest number of endemic tree species along the coast. The northern east coast has over 70% of the total South African coastal dune population of vertebrate species (amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals).This region supports a range of savannah and coastal bushveld, with an increasing amount of sub-tropical vegetation towards Mozambique.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Key natural resources provided by our coast include:

Fisheries. Broadly speaking, the west coast and the western parts of the south coast are the centre of the commercial fisheries, with catches of hake, pilchard, anchovy, lobster and abalone. On the east coast, line-fishing (both commercial and recreational) is more important, and a wider range of species is harvested. In northern KwaZulu-Natal and on the Wild Coast, there is subsistence harvesting of coastal resources.

Agriculture. Our coast provides significant opportunities for agriculture, with generally poor but variable soils on the west coast and rich soils on the east coast. The coast also provides some potential for mariculture (i.e., "farming" marine organisms such as fish, prawns or abalone). Our coastal waters have good water quality and nutrient supply, but there are a limited number of sheltered bays for large-scale activities in the sea. Land-based mariculture offers potential, particularly in the south-western Cape. But marketing some of the products has proved to be challenging in the past.

Mineral resources. Our coast offers significant mineral resources. Along northern parts of the west coast, diamonds are mined on the sea-shore and sea-bed.

On the east coast, and to a lesser extent along the west coast, heavy minerals, particularly titanium and zirconium, are extracted from beach and dune sands. Further deposits exist, including deposits along the Wild Coast. Other important minerals include offshore deposits of oil and gas, most notably giving rise to the Mossgas operation on the south coast. Smaller scale mining includes the extraction of salt from seawater and the mining of sand and pebbles for construction material or cement production.

Development opportunities. There are also tremendous development prospects for coastal tourism and recreational activities. The marketability of our coast is based on its scenic beauty, diversity and natural character, coupled with our mild climate, rich diversity of cultures and traditions and generally good infrastructure.

The biophysical characteristics and natural resources of our coast underpin a rich and varied social setting, with noteworthy regional differences in human settlement patterns, and economic, institutional and legal characteristics, as shown in Figure 7.

THE SOCIAL SETTING

Historical Context

The social setting of our coast can be understood in terms of the recent history of southern Africa. In the nineteenth century, colonial settlement of people from Europe, and the associated settlement of people from Asia, led to expanding cities at Durban, East London, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. The middle and late twentieth century was characterised by apartheid, a policy that explicitly denied economic resources and social services to "homeland" regions and other designated black areas, leaving these regions undeveloped, with inadequate infrastructure. The economic centre of the country was concentrated in the interior, with the coastal cities playing a supportive role to the industrial and political centre of Gauteng. For the first time in our history, the transition to a democratic Government in 1994 allowed all South Africans to enjoy equal rights of access to and enjoyment of the coast.

Our coast is divided into four provinces –Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. But much of the present social character of the coast can be related to previous political divisions: the white-governed Cape Province and Natal Province and the black homeland areas of Ciskei, Transkei and KwaZulu.

Population and Culture

At present, it is estimated that 30% of South Africa’s population live within 60km of the coast. According to available 1996 census data, the South African population is about 38 million people. About 20% live in KwaZulu-Natal, 15.5% in the Eastern Cape, 11% in the Western Cape and 2% in the Northern Cape.

The coastal population can be divided into four main language groups. The west coast is mainly Afrikaans speaking. The Eastern Cape is mainly Xhosa speaking. And KwaZulu-Natal is mainly Zulu speaking. English is commonly spoken along the coast, particularly in urban centres. This simple breakdown does not convey the rich diversity of cultures and traditions amongst coastal communities.

Many of our coastal towns and cities are characterised by a variety of language and cultural backgrounds.

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Settlement patterns reflect the spatial patterns of our society and economy. Largely determined by colonialism and apartheid, the spatial structure of our coast shows clear regional differences.

Cities and Towns

The four coastal cities of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban contain the major concentrations of coastal population, together over 6 million people. All four cities are experiencing rapid population growth and their populations are likely to double in the next 25 to 30 years. Population density is likely to increase, and urban areas will continue to expand along the coast as well as inland, particularly around Cape Town and Durban. These cities serve vast hinterlands and, with the exception of Durban, are far removed from the hub of economic activity in Gauteng.

Other emerging coastal cities include Saldanha Bay and Richards Bay. At the core of both of these developing cities is a specialised, export-based, deep-water port. Richards Bay is a growing urban centre of some 40 000 people on the KwaZulu-Natal north coast. Saldanha is considerably smaller, with about 17 000 people, on the west coast.

Settlement Patterns

Apart from these coastal cities, the coast is sparsely settled, particularly on the west coast. But during holiday seasons there is an influx of people to the coast and the population of coastal towns rises dramatically. Population density is highest on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Many coastal towns serve as holiday, tourism and recreational destinations, and home-owners are absent most of the time.

A number of these towns evolved in association with fishing, agriculture or mining activities. But most of our coast can be characterised as rural. The percentage of the population living in rural areas in the coastal provinces is as follows: Eastern Cape 63%, KwaZulu-Natal 61%, Northern Cape 30%, and Western Cape 10%. The rural settlements include farmsteads associated with commercial agriculture, and traditional housing in former homeland areas of the Transkei, Ciskei and KwaZulu where communities live in a subsistence economy.

The boom in the outdoor recreation and tourism markets has led to intense interest in the development potential of the coast, including regions previously marginalised under apartheid. This trend needs to be seen in the light of the growth of coastal cities, which includes people relocating from the interior to coastal cities such as Cape Town. The social and human settlement characteristics of our coast are closely related to the economic characteristics.

THE ECONOMIC SETTING

Our coast is characterised by marked differences in the levels of economic activity, poverty and inequality. Coastal resources, however, provide considerable economic development potential.

Economic Activity, Poverty and Inequality

Our coastal regions display distinct differences in Gross Geographic Product (GGP) per person (see Figure 9). GGP is a measure of economic activity in an area. Broadly speaking, GGP per person is highest, more than R16 000 per year, in and around Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Richards Bay. The lowest GGP per person, less than R200 per person per year, is found on the southern coast, and in the rural areas of the Eastern Cape and northern KwaZulu-Natal provinces.

South Africans have an average annual income per person of R7 200. Income per person varies between the coastal provinces: Western Cape R13 490, Northern Cape R9 971, KwaZulu-Natal R6 157 and Eastern Cape R4 151.

In international terms, South Africa can be classified as an "upper-middle-income country" in terms of income per person. But most households live in poverty or are vulnerable to becoming poor. Many households have inadequate access to education, health care, energy and clean water. The distribution of wealth and income in South Africa is amongst the most unequal in the world.

Various indicators can be used to measure poverty and inequality. According to the Human Development Index (HDI), the Western Cape, as well as the white and Indian population groups in South Africa as a whole, fall within the HDI range equivalent to "high human development". The HDI for the other coastal provinces, and the coloured and African population groups as a whole, as well as the HDI for South Africa as a whole, fall within the "medium human development" range. Based on a "poverty line" of a monthly household expenditure level of R353 per adult, the extent and distribution of poverty in South Africa is reflected in the following:

Provincial poverty rates are highest for the Eastern Cape, at 71%, and are considerably lower for the Western Cape, at 28%.
Of the coastal provinces, poverty is most severe in the Eastern Cape, with 78% of children living in poor households.
People may be classified as "non-poor" in terms of income but they may be deprived in other ways. According to a South African "deprivation index" , 90% of people "missed" by the income poverty indicator, but deprived in other ways, are Africans from rural areas, mainly in KwaZulu-Natal.

Coastal Resources and Development Opportunities

These few examples highlight the extent to which the stimulation of economic activity, poverty reduction and sustainable job creation are fundamental challenges facing South Africa. Few realise the extent to which the coast can contribute to meeting these challenges. For example, coastal resources are important for:

Subsistence activities. Many South Africans are dependent on the coast for their subsistence. Activities include line-fishing, collection of inter-tidal organisms, beach and seine netting and agricultural practices. The value of subsistence activities is difficult to determine because of the limited information available. In addition, it is difficult to place a value on coastal resources used for subsistence purposes. For example, what value does a fish have to the family it feeds, when the family has no other source of food? Preliminary indications are that at least 3.6 million South Africans depend to a large degree on the food obtained from the coast through subsistence activities. The total value of these activities is at least R1.1 billion annually.

Trade. South Africa is engaging in trade relations with many countries in an increasingly globalised economy. Our coastal cities are a gateway to world trade through shipping and harbours. Over R140 billion of cargo is transported through South Africa’s ports each year, generating over R4.2 billion in annual revenue. Most harbour traffic (75-80% by volume) goes through the ports of Durban and Richards Bay.

Tourism, recreation and leisure. These activities have grown into a global growth industry, and our coast has particular value in this regard. Together they generate more than R15.2 billion, with over 20 million international and domestic visitors each year. Over 40 different recreational activities take place at the coast. The Gunston 500 surfing competition/Ocean Action event attracts over 800 000 visitors and generates over R220 million for local Durban businesses in only 10 days. There are about 100 000 SCUBA divers active on our coast, in an activity worth about R36 million annually.

Commercial and recreational fishing. The South African commercial fishing industry is worth about R1.7 billion annually. The Benguela fisheries of the west coast support the vast bulk of the industry, but smaller commercial fisheries are also located on the south and east coasts. The industry directly employs between 26 000 and 27 000 people. An additional 60 000 people are employed in related sectors that are exclusively or partly dependent on the fishing industry as a market for the supply of stores, equipment and services. Recreational fishing attracts over 600 000 enthusiasts, employs over 131 000 people and generates over R1.3 billion in revenue each year. This activity is especially popular on the KwaZulu-Natal coast.

Development opportunities. Many other economic benefits are derived from our coast, and future development prospects are enormous. For example, in recognition of current and future economic opportunities, and in response to the marked inequalities along the coast, eight of ten current Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) are linked to the coast. These multi-billion-rand coastal development proposals have an anticipated total value of R90 billion and a projected employment of 90 000 people.

THE LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL SETTING

The legal and institutional setting can be characterised as one of change and opportunity. There is also considerable variability between coastal regions and provinces. Urgent attention needs to be given to clarifying roles and responsibilities across different spheres of government and between different agencies.

Change and Opportunity

The new Constitution and a growing awareness of the need for sustainable coastal development provide a positive climate for promoting effective coastal management in the interests of all South Africans.

There are now four coastal provinces, instead of the previous two provinces and the former Transkei, Ciskei and KwaZulu "homelands". The legal and institutional challenges associated with this change are profound and are likely to be felt for a considerable time to come. Other important changes include those relating to the Constitution, and laws relating to planning, natural resource management (including living marine resources and water) and environmental management more generally. This state of change provides exciting opportunities for repositioning coastal management within a changed legal and institutional setting.

Roles and Responsibilities

The current legal context for coastal management is provided by the Constitution and a wide range of national Acts, including the Sea Shore Act, the Environment Conservation Act and the Development Facilitation Act, as well as other legislation relating to land-use planning, protected areas, natural resource management and pollution control. A large number of laws and regulations also exists at provincial and local levels to control coastal development and manage coastal resources.

At present, legislation affecting coastal management is fragmented and is administered by a variety of different Government departments and agencies. It needs to be rationalised and co-ordinated. Various coast-related initiatives, planning exercises and policy processes are taking place at all levels, but are not well co-ordinated.

The Constitution defines concurrent powers with respect to a number of environmental, planning and development functions, as well as certain extended municipal powers. These provisions have the potential to lead to further fragmentation of coastal management. But the Constitution also emphasises the need for co-operative Government, and the need to devolve management functions to the lowest sphere of Government able to undertake them.

The roles and responsibilities of different spheres of Government with respect to coastal management are still in the process of being clarified. At present, there is a high degree of fragmentation, with different spheres responsible for various activities. The lack of a co-ordinating body to provide direction and guide coastal management efforts has resulted in administrative confusion and inefficiency, duplication of efforts, gaps in management and an uncoordinated approach. In general, Government departments do not deal with coastal management directly, nor do they pay particular attention to the coast. But their activities nonetheless influence the coast.

National sphere of Government. The Coastal Management sub-directorate of the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) has a number of responsibilities relating to policy formulation, environmental education, co-ordination of management activities, and international conventions. In practice, the sub-directorate plays a largely advisory role. Coastal functions are also carried out by other units of the DEAT, by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, the Department of Land Affairs and the Department of Minerals and Energy. In general, national departments have tended not to consider coastal management to be part of their responsibilities, particularly in the absence of clear policy guidelines.

Provincial sphere of Government. Much coastal management is carried out through provincial planning, environment and nature conservation departments. Resources are generally seen to be inadequate, particularly for environmental management functions that are increasing in scope. Planning functions are affected by confusion around rapidly changing legislation and structures, which are likely to vary between provinces. These departments are also not able to undertake effective co-ordination with other departments involved with aspects of coastal management.

Local sphere of Government. At the level of local authorities, institutional arrangements are still in a state of change. New planning procedures are in the process of being implemented or developed. The application of these procedures will significantly influence the coast and coastal management. There is a widespread lack of resources and skills for coastal management, particularly by District or Regional Councils in rural areas. This means that proactive coastal management efforts are especially difficult to initiate. In attempts to boost their capacity, some local authorities co-operate with nature conservation agencies and are involved in co-management initiatives with community groups.

This co-operation indicates a positive direction for the future.

This chapter has provided a brief overview of the South African coast. For more information about the regions of our coast, you are referred to Chapter 6, which presents summaries of regional characteristics and issues.

Chapter 6

Regional Characteristics and Issues

This chapter describes the main characteristics of South Africa’s coastal regions, which fall into the following provinces:

Northern Cape Province
Western Cape Province
Eastern Cape Province
KwaZulu-Natal Province.

INTRODUCTION

Thirteen coastal regions have been defined for the purposes of this programme (See Figure 10). The boundaries were identified after an extensive process of consultation and analysis. In this chapter, the regions are grouped according to provinces. The characteristics of the regions are described, including those of Marion and Prince Edward Islands. The purpose of these descriptions is to provide an indication of key characteristics relating to the natural and socio-economic setting, and development opportunities and constraints of the regions. These summaries are brief, but they provide a clear indication of the diversity and richness of our coast.

Key elements of regional vision statements, as developed in 22 regional workshops, are outlined in Table 6. A summary of regional issues is also outlined in this chapter. These issues were identified through an extensive process of public participation. Additional insight into the regional issues was obtained through:

Specialist studies undertaken on behalf of the programme
Review of past research and efforts that led to the development of this programme
Ongoing monitoring of over 800 newspapers and magazines
Public comment and feedback on the results of the regional visioning workshops.

The Project Management Team compiled the regional summaries of issues based on these sources. Feedback on the accuracy of the summaries was obtained from interested and affected parties, a number of the specialists who took part in the Specialist Studies and members of a Task Team.

These issues are intended to serve as agenda items for action. This does not mean that the Coastal Policy should necessarily address each issue. Some issues may be best addressed through existing laws and institutions. Nonetheless, these issues serve to highlight the range and scope of regional opportunities and challenges relating to coastal management.

Table 6: Key Elements of the Regional Vision Statements

REGION	ELEMENTS OF THE VISION
NAMAQUALAND We see…	Equitable access to coastal resources and resources being used on a sustainable basis for the benefit of present and future generations Restitution of land to communities subjected to forced removals in the past New economic opportunities that benefit local communities in the region The unique natural and cultural characteristics of the Namaqualand coast being protected and properly managed Areas damaged by mining activities being rehabilitated Community members assuming a greater responsibility for managing coastal resources
WEST COAST We see…	Equitable access to coastal resources for all Communities playing a role in future economic development that strives for job creation, affordable housing and the reduction of poverty The unique natural and cultural features of the West Coast being protected and properly managed Pollution being controlled and waste being managed in an accountable manner Optimal but sustainable use of natural and built resources for the benefit of local people New development opportunities and initiatives that address training, capacity building, environmental awareness and human resource development
CAPE METRO We see…	The coast as our heritage, being managed as a public asset for the benefit of the people of the region and of South Africa Development opportunities that benefit local communities Densification of physical development and encouragement of nodal development The integrity and beauty of the coast being maintained, the indigenous flora being conserved and invasive alien vegetation being removed Limited water resources being carefully managed and pollution being controlled A people with a social ethic who value the coast Co-operative and co-ordinated governance and publicly accountable decision-making
AGULHAS We see…	Community driven development and sustainable job creation for locals A region that is "ecologically friendly", safe and crime free, with a sound and sustainable economy and well developed infrastructure and services Development that is well planned, controlled and consistent with the unique aspects and cultural traditions of the region The unique natural and cultural aspects of the region being retained The region forming part of a biosphere reserve and being world-renowned for its unique assets, such as the tip of Africa and whale watching Plentiful coastal resources benefiting the local communities Effective water conservation systems in place and conservation areas established, forming a green belt between the sea and mountains Well educated, aware and involved communities and co-ordinated, co-operative and responsive Government
GARDEN ROUTE We see…	Basic needs of disadvantaged communities being addressed A sustainable development strategy with nature-based tourism as the core Economic development that benefits local communities and does not negatively affect the spectacular natural features and resources of the region Sensitive development and densification of existing development A biosphere reserve being developed and the wilderness character of the region being maintained, with damaged areas being rehabilitated Better relationships between communities and improved participation in development planning and decision-making Local authorities with more effective environmental controls, legislation and enforcement
SUNSHINE COAST We see…	A "people-friendly" coast that is protected and properly managed as an asset for future generations Sustainable, environmentally-friendly development and a balance between development and conservation Facilities and services along the coast being upgraded and maintained, especially for historically disadvantaged communities The Tsitsikamma National Park being declared a World Heritage Site Local people involved in development and management Effective, well trained coastal managers
BORDER-KEI We see…	Basic needs being met, human rights being guaranteed and "environment friendly" people who are empowered and knowledgeable about the coast A booming tourism industry and development initiatives benefiting different communities and interest groups Appropriate infrastructure and development being encouraged but controlled Abundant coastal and marine resources being used sustainably to the benefit of local communities A common coastal management policy for the whole country and more human and financial resources being allocated to coastal management Clear responsibilities of authorities for implementing laws and regulations Better relationships between authorities and interested and affected parties Legislation that is clear and enforceable and communities being involved in design, implementation and monitoring of laws
WILD COAST We see…	Access to land ownership rights and a restored and effective land administration system Development, access to business opportunities and the area continuing to attract tourists Physical development taking place within a legal framework and better land-use plans addressing housing, infrastructure, agriculture and job creation Biodiversity being conserved and degraded land being rehabilitated Environmental education being taught in schools and communities Social development and environmentally conscious community members who actively participate in programmes
HIBISCUS We see…	Well planned coastal development that benefits local communities Future developments including functional facilities, a harbour and airport, as well as housing, industry and tourism A thriving coastal tourism and recreation destination, with good access and facilities Healthy and intact natural systems, well managed marine reserves and conservation areas, and green belts extending along the coast A pollution-free environment and degraded areas being rehabilitated Natural resources being used on a sustainable basis
DURBAN METRO We see…	Basic needs being met, clean and safe beaches and appropriate access to the coast for all A prosperous coastal city with a balance between economic activities and the environment Well planned development that does not compromise the natural environment and rich biodiversity of the region Protected key natural features and green "corridors" extending throughout the region, and clean, clear rivers from source to sea Environmentally aware people participating in coastal activities Effective institutional arrangements and mechanisms
LOWER TUGELA/ DOLPHIN We see…	Equitable access to resources and opportunities, and educated and informed people A decent quality of life and employment opportunities for all coastal residents Appropriate spatial planning and planning of infrastructure, such as nodal residential and tourism development Impacts on the environment being controlled, regulations being effectively administered and pollution being minimised The special and unique character and natural heritage of the coast being retained Environments that are safe, well managed and conserved, and degraded areas being rehabilitated People participating together to secure sustainable use of resources Effective, fully capacitated and integrated administrations and Government institutions
ZULULAND We see…	Access to the coast and appropriate facilities for all socio-economic groups Co-ordinated development and conservation activities and active public participation in decision-making A regional plan that promotes a balance between industrial, residential, tourism, mining and conservation activities (where development is subject to height restrictions, nodal in nature and set back from the beach) The importance and protection of the natural environment being recognised as a priority by all
MAPUTALAND We see…	Communities with access to natural resources, education facilities and the economic opportunities of the region, such as tourism A society that is non-racial, crime free and empowered, where there is freedom of speech and movement, and traditional values and cultures are respected and preserved Land claims being effectively resolved An economy based on a thriving tourism industry, stimulating development and empowerment for local communities, and providing infrastructure and facilities, while promoting sustainable development A clean and ecologically sound environment that enjoys effective protection The Greater St Lucia Wetland Park being declared a World Heritage Site.

NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE

The Northern Cape provincial boundaries define the extent of the Namaqualand coastal region.

Namaqualand

The Namaqualand coastal region is a virtually uninhabited desert. It stretches 390 km from the Orange River mouth, on the border between South Africa and Namibia, to the boundary of the Northern Cape and Western Cape Provinces.

Rainfall is low (less than 100 mm annually). Strong southerly winds cause upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich, deep water that maintains extensive beds of aquatic plants, such as kelp. It also supports valuable fisheries including hake, pilchard and anchovy, as well as large seal, sea-bird, rock lobster, mussel and limpet populations. There are relatively few species, but these often occur in very high densities.

There are no significant bays on this straight coast. Sandy shores comprise 30% of the coastline, while rocky shores comprise the remaining 70%. Only the Orange and Olifants rivers flow year-round and the only wetland of note is the Orange River estuary at Alexander Bay, which has international importance and recognition as a Ramsar site.

The region is characterised by sandy soils that support sparse, scrubby strandveld vegetation, which is well adapted to extreme temperatures and limited moisture, but is sensitive to disturbance. Agricultural potential is poor, but the unusual succulent vegetation and annual wild flower display are important assets of the region.

The Magisterial District of Namaqualand had an estimated population of 67 000 in 1995. The coastal population, however, was estimated at 13 000, of which 90% live in the towns of Port Nolloth, Alexander Bay, Kleinsee, Koiingnaas and Hondeklip Bay. Public access to the coast is limited by poor road infrastructure and the tight security restrictions enforced by diamond mining operations.

Unemployment is high in coastal communities. There is an almost total dependence on the few large companies that dominate the diamond mining and fishing activities. Land-based diamond reserves have, however, been almost completely exhausted and off-shore reserves are now being exploited.

Fish stocks, including rock lobster, the major catch landed locally, have been declining for a number of years.

The distance from major urban centres, limited access to markets, scarcity of fresh water, lack of a deep-water harbour and the restricted access to the diamond concession areas pose serious challenges to the region’s future development. There are, however, some resources that could be developed. The seal colony at Kleinsee is probably the largest mainland seal colony in the world and could be developed into a tourist attraction. The establishment of the Coastal National Park between the Groen and Spoeg rivers will also appeal to those who appreciate a wilderness experience. Mariculture and harvesting of under-utilised marine resources, such as mussels and limpets, also offer potential for the future development of this region.

Issues: Namaqualand Coast

Our National Heritage

Physical access to the coast and its resources is limited by mine security restrictions.

Coastal Planning and Development

The region is relatively undeveloped.
Infrastructure and services in the region are poor.
Shortage of water limits development possibilities.
Unemployment is a major problem.
Mining dominates the economic development of the region.
Mining activities are currently being down-scaled.
Small-scale mining represents an alternative to large-scale operations.
Alternative opportunities for making a living are limited.
Revenue generated locally should benefit local communities.
Nature-based coastal tourism could potentially be developed.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

Discarded mining equipment degrades the aesthetic value of the coast in many areas.

Natural Resource Management

Protected area management is needed.
There is a need for a post-mining development strategy.
There is a perception that certain species of living marine resources are declining due to the impact of mining on the coast.
Mined and prospected areas need to be rehabilitated to create opportunities for future use.
Marine research is hampered by mine security restrictions.
Controversy surrounds the potential for seal harvesting.
There is a need to review the allocation of kelp harvesting concessions.

Restricted coastal access prevents exploitation of the alien black mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), contributing to its spread.

Governance and Capacity Building

Community involvement in planning and management of mining activities is very limited.

Mining, recreation, conservation and fishing activities in the region have user conflicts.

There is limited Governmental capacity.

Management authorities are located far from the coast.

Applications for new prospecting and mining permits should be subject to impact assessments.

WESTERN CAPE PROVINCE

The Western Cape Province includes the West Coast, Cape Metro, Agulhas and Garden Route regions.

West Coast

The West Coast is a sparsely populated, wind-swept, arid region. It stretches 260 km, from the Olifants River mouth at the boundary between the Northern Cape and the Western Cape provinces, to Bokpunt, near Atlantis, on the outskirts of the Cape Town Metropole.

The region has a semi-arid climate with low rainfall (100 - 400 mm annually). Strong southerly winds are responsible for the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters that support extensive kelp beds and substantial stocks of fish, abalone, mussels, rock lobster and seals.

The coast is indented by several bays, including Saldanha Bay, the only deep-water bay in South Africa. Sandy beaches interspersed with occasional rocky outcrops along the shores of St Helena Bay give way to a more rugged, rocky shoreline at Columbine and Saldanha, and long sandy beaches to the south. Sandy beaches comprise 73% of the coastline, while rocky shore and wave-cut rocky platforms comprise the remaining 27%.

There are several significant river and wetland systems, notably the Olifants and Berg rivers, Verlorenvlei, Rocher Pan and Langebaan Lagoon, which provide important habitat for wading birds.

The agricultural potential of the area is poor. Soils are sandy and vegetation is typically sparse, consisting mainly of strandveld (semi-succulent scrub) and fynbos, which are well adapted to the hot, dry conditions.

The Magisterial Districts of the West Coast had an estimated population of 273 000 in 1995. The population along the coast, however, was estimated at 40 000, concentrated in the towns of Lamberts Bay, Velddrif, St Helena Bay, Vredenburg, Saldanha and Langebaan. The deep-water port of Saldanha forms the centre of the Vredenburg-Saldanha-Langebaan complex, the largest settlement on the West Coast. The coastal road stretches north only as far as Velddrif, and towns such as Elands Bay and Lamberts Bay are accessible only from inland. Part of the Sishen-Saldanha railway line serves the northern areas.

The West Coast is the centre of South Africa’s commercial fishing industry. Highly industrialised and capital-intensive trawl and purse-seine fisheries, together with the lobster fishery, dominate the economy of the region. Hake and pilchard fisheries are showing a recovery from past over-exploitation, but the lobster fishery is declining. Poaching of this valuable resource is cause for concern. The port of Saldanha caters for recreational, mariculture and industrial activities. The industrial activities were recently given a boost through the development of the Saldanha Steel project.

Other coastal towns, such as Lamberts Bay, Velddrif, Elands Bay and Yzerfontein, are increasingly attracting tourists and holiday home-owners. Several modern resorts, such as Club Mykonos, Port Owen and Britannia Bay, catering almost exclusively for visitors, are also developing along the coast.

The scarcity and quality of fresh water has been one of the major obstacles to development in this region. Despite this problem, there has been substantial investment in mariculture, shipping, industrial, manufacturing, tourism and recreational activities. Natural features, such as the wild flowers and Langebaan Lagoon, which forms part of the West Coast National Park, as well as the region’s close proximity to Cape Town, make it an attractive tourism and holiday destination.

Issues: West Coast

Our National Heritage

The unique character of the West Coast must be maintained.

Physical access to the coast is restricted by private land holdings, private development nature conservation areas.

Coastal land owned by the navy should be opened to the public but not in a way that has adverse effects on the natural environment.

There is controversy over access to marine resources and how the benefits could be more equitably distributed.

Coastal Planning and Development

The region is currently under-developed.

Limited water resources constrain development possibilities.

There is a conflict between industrial development, nature conservation and tourism activities, particularly in the Saldanha-Langebaan area.

Developers put little back into the local economy.

The fishing industry, which is dominated by a few large consortiums, is in decline.

There is a need for optimum and multiple-use of fishing harbours and ongoing maintenance.

Mariculture opportunities need to be explored.

The tourism industry is very seasonal.

The agricultural potential of the region is poor.

Uncontrolled ribbon development is taking place.

Amenity values are being compromised by sprawling development.

Growth of holiday housing developments puts pressure on existing infrastructure.

The possible construction of a coastal road presents both opportunities and challenges.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

There is a potential risk of air and water pollution associated with increasing industrial.

There is a need for an environmental monitoring programme to identify existing and potential risks.

Natural Resource Management

More protected areas are needed.

Some areas have a high natural heritage value, e.g., Langebaan and Verlorenvlei.

Insufficient control over the exploitation of marine resources.

Good water quality in Saldanha Bay area required for local mariculture activities.

Agricultural irrigation systems result in the draw-down of the regional water table, resulting in saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers.

Degraded coastal resources and habitats need to be rehabilitated.

Governance and Capacity Building

There is a lack of enforcement of existing laws.

Responsible authorities are not scrutinising development applications thoroughly enough.

Some development is driven by greed.

There is a need for environmental audits of developments in sensitive coastal areas.

Management plans of different authorities need to be rationalised and integrated.

Community involvement in development planning and management is limited.

Cape Metro

The Cape Metro is a densely populated urban area. The region extends 195 km from Bokpunt, near Atlantis, to Cape Hangklip, the eastern headland of False Bay.

The Mediterranean climate ensures warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters, with annual rainfall varying between 400 mm in the low-lying areas to over 2 000 mm in some mountainous areas. The strong southerly winds cause upwelling of deep nutrient-rich water and result in highly productive, cold coastal waters. This results in extensive kelp beds and large populations of seals and penguins, as well as species such as pilchard, anchovy, rock lobster and abalone. Furthermore, the Cape Peninsula lies at the junction of the cool-temperate west coast and the warm-temperate south coast and consequently has a particularly high biological diversity.

There are a variety of bays along this rugged coastline, including two of the largest bay systems in South Africa - Table Bay and False Bay. The shore consists of a mix of sandy beaches (43%) and rocky shores (57%). There are no large river catchments, but some important estuarine wetlands are found at Rietvlei, the mouth of the Diep River, the Disa River, Wildevoëlvlei, Die Mond at Cape Point and Sandvlei.

Soils are characteristically sandy and, although low in nutrients, support extensive areas of fynbos, which has very high plant diversity.

Although the rich soils of valleys such as Constantia and the hills north of Cape Town have high agricultural value, most of the coast is dominated by human settlement. The population is large (in excess of 1.6 million in 1995), with about 900 000 people living in coastal suburbs within the Cape Town commuter belt, including, for example, Melkbosstrand, Camps Bay, Hout Bay, Ocean View, Muizenberg and Strand.

Infrastructure is very well developed, with good road, rail, shipping and aircraft links. In addition to the port of Cape Town, important small-craft harbours are located at Hout Bay, Simons Bay, Kalk Bay and Gordons Bay.

The large and diverse economy is based mainly on manufacturing, Government and community services, shipping, commerce and tourism. Although manufacturing makes the greatest contribution to income, the Government and community services sector employs the greatest number of people. High demand for residential housing along the coast reflects a vibrant regional economy. Population growth and urbanisation, however, are putting pressure on water supplies, waste disposal systems and the amenity value of the region.

The scenic beauty of the region forms the basis of major tourism, recreational and real estate industries. Local and international tourists are drawn here by the region’s natural and cultural features, including Table Mountain, the magnificent coast, beaches and surfing sites, the penguin and seal colonies, and other recreational opportunities offered by the region. The recently proclaimed Cape Peninsula National Park should contribute to better management of the region’s natural attractions.

Issues: Cape Metro

Our National Heritage

Controversy exists over access to marine resources and a more equitable distribution of benefits.

Access to certain beaches (e.g., AECI and Somchem) is restricted.

There is a need to protect and guarantee traditional user rights.

Coastal property is unaffordable to the majority of the population.

Coastal Planning and Development

There is a need for appropriate planning and growth management strategies.

Coastal development and resource use must focus on the creation of employment.

Historically disadvantaged communities located on the coast have limited work opportunities and recreational facilities near their place of residence.

Increasing levels of human settlement must be more effectively managed.

Problems facing the design and management of urban areas in this region include: retaining the visual quality, waste disposal and maintenance of water quality, intensity of use of amenities and resources, management of informal settlements, and ensuring safety and security.

Public transport systems need upgrading.

Only coastal dependent business and industry should be located on the coast.

Sprawling urban development has led to a loss of prime agricultural land and recreational opportunities and negative impacts on the landscape.

The siting of Koeberg close to the city is problematic and constrains development in this area. There is a need to consider its fate after decommissioning.

There is a need to expand sustainable tourism opportunities.

Future development below the low water mark must be prevented and inappropriately development phased out over time.

Opportunities for multiple-use of the port need to be investigated and promoted.

The city and the port need to be integrated.

Small-craft harbour maintenance is needed.

Fresh water is a constraint on development possibilities.

Inappropriately sited coastal development impacts negatively on coastal aquifers.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

Effluent disposal and stormwater runoff, especially from informal settlements, pose a potential health risk.

Water quality problems in False Bay, discharging from catchment areas, are of particular concern.

There must be strict enforcement of regulations on dumping at sea and in harbours (oil, etc.).

Oil spill contingency plans must be maintained.

Litter on beaches needs attention.

Natural Resource Management

Protected area management is needed to protect indigenous coastal fauna and flora.

Coastal erosion requires attention (e.g., Milnerton).

There is inappropriate development in coastal wetlands and river systems.

There are various examples of inappropriately designed and located structures that interfere with natural physical coastal processes.

There is over-exploitation of some marine living resources.

Many of the river systems are degraded.

Indigenous coastal vegetation is lost due to invasive plants and inappropriately located development.

Environmental degradation and conflict occur due to illegal informal settlements.

The aesthetic appeal of the area is reduced by degraded natural resources and mined areas which need to be rehabilitated.

Governance and Capacity Building

Education and awareness programmes are needed for the public on environmental and coastal matters.

The opportunity for public review of land use planning processes is limited.

Confusion exists over roles and responsibilities.

Conflict due to illegal informal settlements is not adequately dealt with.

Conflict resolution mechanisms are currently inadequate (e.g., illegal and legal harvesters).

Visible policing is needed to secure coastal recreational opportunities.

Agulhas Coast

The Agulhas coast is the southernmost coastal region in Africa. It extends 335 km, from Cape Hangklip, the eastern headland of False Bay, to the mouth of the Gouritz River, just west of Mossel Bay.

Rainfall is seasonal, with 400 mm – 1 000 mm falling mainly during the winter months each year. This seasonality is less pronounced towards the east. Cape Agulhas lies roughly between the cool west coast and the subtropical east coast, with water temperatures increasing eastwards. The coastal waters are highly productive due to upwelling of nutrient-rich waters, mainly west of Cape Agulhas, but also at selected locations as far east as Port Elizabeth. Important resources include kelp and red algae, pilchard, dagerad, white steenbras, kob, galjoen, black mussels, white mussels, alikreukel, rock lobster and abalone.

The region has several large bays, for example Walker Bay and St Sebastian Bay, and many smaller bays. About 43% of the coast is sandy beach, 39% rocky shore and 18% wave-cut rocky platform. The region contains a number of important wetlands, such as Botrivier Vlei, Kleinrivier Vlei, Heuningnes and De Hoop Vlei, and river systems, such as the Breede and Gouritz rivers.

The region is widely held to be the centre of the Cape Floral Kingdom, commonly known as fynbos. The mountain fynbos of the western mountains exhibits very high species diversity, while lowland areas support some of the remaining lowland fynbos. The area immediately inland of the coast is intensively utilised for agriculture.

The Magisterial Districts of the Agulhas Coast had an estimated population of 173 000 in 1995. The coastal population, however, was estimated at 35 000, concentrated in the greater Hermanus area. Commercial line-fishing operations are based in the towns of Hermanus, Gansbaai, Arniston, Struisbaai and Stilbaai. Intensive fishing has, however, caused the collapse of many fish stocks. This region is the centre of South Africa’s abalone industry, with both marine and land-based mariculture operations. Uncontrolled poaching, however, seriously threatens the existence of this resource.

The region has become increasingly popular as a tourism, recreation and retirement destination because of its natural features and scenic beauty. It is home to the De Hoop Nature Reserve which contains 50 km of protected coastline and offers significant regional conservation and tourism opportunities. Shore-based whale watching in this region is reputed to be the best in the world.

The proximity to Cape Town and good road networks have increased numbers of weekend visitors. Consequently, there is growing demand for holiday accommodation and related development, which affects not only the natural resource base, but the socio-economic and cultural characteristics of the region. Small fishing villages are giving way to holiday and resort developments, and development has been diverted away from the traditional inland commercial centres of Caledon and Bredasdorp. Limited fresh water resources, particularly towards the eastern part of the region, are a constraint on future development. The culture of "cocktail-sized" abalone is currently being developed and could prove to be lucrative. Other exploitable natural resources include black and white mussels, octopus and alikreukel.

Issues: Agulhas Coast

Our National Heritage

Pedestrian access above the high water mark must be ensured.

Privatisation of state land on the coast limits public access.

Appropriately designed or controlled access to beaches is needed to protect the sensitivity of the area.

Historically disadvantaged communities have limited access to marine resources.

Coastal Planning and Development

No growth management strategy.

Need to diversify activities to provide sustainable jobs.

Sprawling development reduces the amenity value of the coast.

There is limited land for coastal development at established nodes.

Development speculation should be prevented.

Fynbos areas are destroyed by developers prior to rezoning approval (e.g., Suiderstrand).

The seasonal nature of the tourism industry is problematic for the provision of adequate and infrastructure.

Inadequate infrastructure exists (e.g., access roads, amenity facilities at beaches).

Tourist facilities urgently need upgrading.

Ongoing maintenance and efficient multiple-use of harbours is required.

The needs of agriculture, forestry and nature-based tourism must be balanced.

Limited fresh water is a constraint on development possibilities.

Mariculture opportunities need to be further explored.

There is a loss of cultural heritage sites (e.g., Waenhuiskrans fisher culture, middens, shipwrecks).

Pollution Control and Waste Management

There is a risk of oil pollution from ships.

A waste recycling policy needs to be implemented.

Natural Resource Management

There is a need to protect unique and special natural systems and features.

The "southern tip of Africa" must be protected against inappropriate development and degradation.

A marine reserve is needed between the Gouritz and Breede rivers.

Certain marine resources are over-exploited.

There is a high level of conflict over coastal resource use resulting in violent clashes.

User conflicts occur between subsistence, commercial and recreational users (e.g., Hawston).

Stocks of commercial marine resources are declining.

Poor catchment management (e.g., excessive water abstraction, poor agricultural practices, siltation of rivers).

Uncontrolled off-road vehicle use damages dunes and coastal vegetation.

Governance and Capacity Building

There is a lack of environmental education.

Developers do not take public participation seriously – this leads to conflict.

Confusion exists due to overlapping roles and poor co-operation amongst different levels of Government.

There is a lack of capacity to enforce legislation (e.g., poaching).

Management authorities are far removed from the coast.

There is a need for more accountable resource management.

Garden Route

The Garden Route is a rugged and scenic region that extends 225 km, from the Gouritz River west of Mossel Bay, to the Blaauwkrantz River which marks the boundary between the Western and Eastern Cape provinces.

The climate is warm temperate, with peak spring and autumn rainfall that averages between 700 and 1 200 mm annually. The coastal waters are warm (17 – 23^o C), due to the influence of the Agulhas Current, but the upwelling of cold water occurs at times, considerably reducing the water temperature. The waters are productive and support a diversity of plant, animal and bird life, including numerous fish such as hake, monk, snoek and maasbanker, as well as chokka, algae, limpets, oysters, seals and cormorants.

The coast comprises 44% rocky headlands, 18% wave-cut rocky platforms and 38% sandy beaches, as well as five major bays: Visbaai, Vleesbaai, Mossel Bay, Buffalo Bay and Plettenberg Bay. The region has many rivers. Some of the important estuaries include those at the mouths of the Gouritz, Klein Brak, Groot Brak, Swartvlei, Knysna, Keurbooms, Sout and Blaauwkrantz rivers. There are also four fresh-water lakes – Langvlei, Bo-Langvlei, Rondevlei and Groenvlei which, together with the estuarine Swartvlei Lake, constitute the Wilderness Lakes system. Three protected areas incorporate 13% of the coastline: the Goukamma Nature Reserve, the Robberg Marine Reserve and the westernmost portion of the Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park. High dunes occur along the coast, particularly in the area of the Wilderness Lakes.

There are large tracts of both indigenous coastal forest and timber plantations in the region. Fynbos and high-potential agricultural land make up most of the remainder of the undeveloped areas.

The Magisterial Districts of the Garden Route had an estimated population of 225 000 in 1995. The main urban centres are Mossel Bay, George (some 10 km inland), Plettenberg Bay and Knysna. There is good road and rail infrastructure in the region, with a harbour located at Mossel Bay and airports at George and Plettenberg Bay.

Tourism and holiday related development and services are a major economic activity in the region, but these activities are seasonal, with many visitors coming to the region only during the peak summer holiday season. This creates a large seasonal fluctuation in population. There are also many absentee home-owners in the region. Other important economic activities include fishing (especially hake), forestry and agriculture (including vegetables, hops and dairy farming), and a petroleum industry based in Mossel Bay. The scarcity of fresh water could be a constraint on future development options.

The Garden Route has enormous value as a tourism and recreational asset. The region’s popularity as a holiday and retirement area has, however, led to rapid property development. Inappropriate property developments could seriously detract from the Garden Route’s scenic qualities, which are its main marketing feature.

Issues: Garden Route Coast

Our National Heritage

Public access is limited by private development, privatisation of beaches and nature reserves.

The rights and economic interests of subsistence fishers must be respected.

Coastal Planning and Development

No regional development strategy exists.

Local authorities need to develop integrated development plans.

Economic activities must be diversified to provide sustainable jobs.

There is limited evidence as to how income from rates and taxes benefits the local economy.

Planning should occur to maintain the unique wilderness character of the region.

Uncontrolled subdivision of agricultural land occurs.

Sprawling development leads to a loss of prime agricultural land and declining amenity value.

There is ribbon development and uncontrolled expansion of urban boundaries.

Development occurs too close to the sea – there is a need to establish buffer and transition zones.

High impact commercial activity on the coast leads to degradation.

There are opportunities for nature-based tourism but these are very seasonal.

Local infrastructure cannot cope with the annual influx of tourists.

The provision of services needs to be de-politicised.

Limited fresh-water resources restrict potential development opportunities.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

Pollution from land and sea needs to be monitored and controlled.

There is a risk of oil pollution from ships.

Natural Resource Management

There is a need to preserve sensitive coastal areas.

Alien vegetation threatens indigenous vegetation.

There is a lack of understanding and knowledge of the impact of actions on the natural environment.

Concern exists regarding responsibility for repair of ecological damage caused through inappropriate development and land use.

Governance and Capacity Building

Education and awareness programmes are needed for the public on environmental and coastal matters.

Improved public participation is needed in the development process.

Resource management responsibilities for the lakes are changing (e.g., Knysna) and there is concern over the ability of local authorities to assume this responsibility.

Lack of clarity exists about responsibility for enforcement of legislation.

Legislation is outdated and inappropriate.

Existing legislation is not effectively enforced.

There is a lack of trust funds for immediate mitigation of negative impacts.

EASTERN CAPE PROVINCE

The Eastern Cape Province is made up of the Sunshine Coast, Border-Kei and Wild Coast regions.

Sunshine Coast

The Sunshine Coast is a mixture of undeveloped coastal areas and small towns that extends 385 km from the boundary of the Western and Eastern Cape provinces to the Great Fish River. The city of Port Elizabeth dominates the region.

The climate is warm-temperate, tending towards sub-tropical in the east. Peak rainfall (500 - 650 mm) occurs in spring and autumn. The warm coastal waters, with occasional cold-water upwellings, support more than 70 species of fish, such as mullet, steenbras, zebra, blacktail and sole, as well as chokka and rock lobsters.

More than 55% of the coast is comprised of sandy beaches, while rocky headlands make up 24% and wave-cut rocky platforms 21%. The region is dominated by two large bays, St Francis and Algoa bays, with other smaller bays occurring at Slangbaai and Thysbaai.

There are several large estuaries, such as the Swartkops, Krom, Kowie, Boesmans, Great Fish, Gamtoos and Sundays. The Alexandria dunefield on the northern shores of Algoa Bay is the largest dunefield in South Africa. There are several islands in Algoa Bay. St Croix, Brenton and Jahleel islands are nature reserves, with St Croix serving as the most easterly breeding site for the threatened jackass penguin. Bird, Stag and Seal islands and Black Rocks are smaller islands and are protected as sanctuaries for seals and seabirds.

The region is noted for the diversity of vegetation types, including large forests in the wetter western areas, fynbos on coastal cliffs and thicket in the drier eastern sections. Grasslands and pastures have high agricultural potential.

The five Magisterial Districts of the Sunshine Coast had an estimated population of 849 000 in 1995. About 84% of the population lives in Port Elizabeth. Other coastal towns include Sea Vista in St Francis Bay, Jeffreys Bay, Kenton-on-Sea and Port Alfred. Infrastructure in the region is good and tourism and recreational development and services are significant in the region. Many resort towns offer a range of outdoor activities, including water-sports, hiking, whale watching and fishing. There are several marinas in the region.

The economy is dominated by the manufacturing, commercial and industrial activities of Port Elizabeth. The most important fishing activities relate to chokka, kingklip and sole, as well as abalone farming. Sand mining for the cement industry occurs in Algoa Bay. Other activities include forestry, particularly in the Humansdorp district, and a range of agricultural practices. One limitation to further development is the lack of fresh-water resources, which is particularly notable in the St Francis Bay region.

Widespread poverty, increasing unemployment and the influx of people from the former Ciskei and Transkei to Port Elizabeth has added impetus to the need for large-scale industrial projects, such as the proposed Coega harbour and Industrial Development Zone. Such developments could potentially have far-reaching consequences and are the subject of intense debate.

Issues: Sunshine Coast

Our National Heritage

Physical access to parts of the region is difficult.

Access is constrained by land privatisation, nature reserve areas, topography and access fees.

Opportunities for recreational fishing are inequitable.

Coastal Planning and Development

There is a need to diversify coastal economies.

Revenue generated locally should remain in local communities.

Intense coastal settlement, particularly around Port Elizabeth, poses a management challenge.

Urban pressures on Swartkops and Buffalo estuaries are severe.

There is a concern regarding rapid development expansion and sprawl, especially around river mouths.

Aesthetic appeal is important — development needs to be informed by appropriate guidelines.

There is a need to upgrade existing tourism and recreational facilities to encourage more visitors.

A scarcity of water limits development possibilities.

Development of the fishing industry is hampered by a lack of harbour facilities.

A boat launching facility and fish-processing plant are needed.

The Coega harbour and Industrial Development Zone need careful planning and impact assessment.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

Pollution from land and sea needs to be controlled and monitored.

Inappropriately planned sewage disposal is a serious problem.

Seepage from septic tanks contaminates coastal aquifers.

Bays and inlets are vulnerable to pollution accumulation due to limited depth and water circulation.

Natural Resource Management

There is a need to identify and manage sensitive and unique areas requiring protection.

There is a perception that international fishing activities in South African waters impact heavily on fishing resources.

Uncontrolled harvesting of shellfish occurs.

Excessive water abstraction from coastal aquifers leads to salt-water intrusion.

Uncontrolled off-road vehicle use is a cause for concern.

Indigenous coastal vegetation is being destroyed.

Degraded coastal resources need rehabilitation.

Governance and Capacity Building

Public education and awareness programmes on environmental and coastal matters are needed.

There appears to be apathy amongst local inhabitants about becoming involved in yet another policy initiative.

Improved public participation in development and coastal management is required.

There is a need to develop a coastal management forum.

There is limited institutional capacity.

Confusion exists over roles and responsibilities in enforcing legislation.

There is a lack of enforcement of existing legislation.

Conflicts exist between recreational activities and conservation needs.

Security on beaches is required.

Border-Kei Region

The Border-Kei coastal region is largely rural, with East London being the main urban centre. The region extends 153 km from the Great Fish River to the Great Kei River.

The climate is mild sub-tropical, with annual rainfall between 800 and 1 000 mm, falling mostly in spring, autumn and summer. The warm coastal waters support fish, rock lobster and chokka, with the potential to develop commercial and subsistence fisheries in reef fish, octopus and cuttlefish.

Most of the region is characterised by sandy beaches (62%) interspersed with rocky shores (2%) and wave-cut rocky platforms (36%). More than 32 rivers flow into the sea, with resort development at virtually all river mouths in the eastern part of the region. Large estuaries include the Great Fish, Keiskamma, Buffalo, Nahoon, Gonubie, Kwelera, Bulura and Kei rivers. There are several marine reserves, but no land-based nature reserves. The indigenous State forest reserves, however, afford some protection to the coastal land areas. The vegetation is mainly dune thicket and grassland. Towards the east, vegetated dunes are covered with dense indigenous coastal forest.

The four Magisterial Districts of the Border-Kei Coast had an estimated population of 602 000 in 1995, of which about 85% lived in East London. There are also small resort towns at Hamburg, Kidds Beach, Haga Haga, Morgan’s Bay and Kei Mouth. In addition, there are resorts, houses and rural villages scattered along the coast.

East London and its surrounds have good road and rail infrastructure, including an airport and harbour. It has a manufacturing and industrial base and an important tourism industry. In contrast, the former Ciskei is amongst the poorest areas in the country, with virtually non-existent infrastructure, poor access to the coast and a high level of subsistence activity. There is little commercial fishing in the region, but recreational angling is popular, especially near the eastern resort towns. Seaweed is actively harvested, and a mariculture operation is under construction at Marshstrand.

There are a few quarries near Gonubie which extract sand for the building industry. There are a range of commercial farming operations, including dairy and beef farming and vegetable and pineapple cultivation in the east of the region.

The region’s scenic beauty, high biodiversity and wilderness character could support community-based tourism ventures in the future. The development of large-scale industrial projects, such as the proposed East London Industrial Development Zone, focusing on the electronics industry, also offer opportunities to reduce the widespread poverty.

Issues: Border-Kei Region

Our National Heritage

People do not understand the motivation for placing restrictions on harvesting of traditional food sources.

Land tenure is of great concern, especially with respect to land owned by the former Ciskei government.

Coastal Planning and Development

No regional structure plans exist.

Good development plans are buried in bureaucracy – need to establish a way of encouraging good development.

Economic development is needed to create more job opportunities.

Job creation is often pursued at the expense of environmental sustainability.

There is under-development and poor infrastructure and services in various parts of the region.

Opportunities exist for nature-based coastal tourism and holiday homes.

Beaches are overcrowded during peak periods.

Coastal development is often uncontrolled.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

There is inadequate sewage treatment and sewage is discharged directly into the ocean and watercourses.

The disposal of land-based industrial and domestic effluent (treated and untreated) into the sea is controversial.

Natural Resource Management

Poverty impacts negatively on natural resources.

The overall degradation of the environment requires urgent attention.

There is general degradation of estuaries.

Invasion of alien plants is of great concern.

Unsustainable use of marine and coastal resources is of concern.

Governance and Capacity Building

There is a lack of environmental education.

A lack of structures and avenues for public participation impedes progress in regulating development and activities.

Interested parties are not consulted about development proposals or implementation of legislation regulating activities.

There are too many laws and loopholes in the laws.

Confusion exists regarding responsibility.

There is inadequate and fragmented enforcement of existing laws.

There is a lack of commitment by the authorities.

There is poor institutional capacity.

Safety and security is of concern.

Wild Coast

The Wild Coast is a rugged and undeveloped region, extending 270 km from the Great Kei River to the boundary between the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal.

The climate is sub-tropical with plentiful rain, 1 000 – 1 200 mm annually, that falls predominantly in spring and autumn. The warm coastal waters support many fish and invertebrates, such as snoek, maasbanker, kob, silverfish, yellowtail, rock lobster and chokka, as well as a diversity of inter-tidal organisms including oysters and mussels.

The region has numerous river outlets, bays and headlands, and is characterised by rocky shores (41% wave-cut platforms and 18% rocky headlands) and sandy beaches (34%). The largest estuaries include the Qora, Nqabara, Mbashe, Mtata, Mtakatye, Mzimvubu, Kei and Mgazana rivers.

The southern portion of this region is characterised by low hills and meandering rivers. Farther north, there are steep cliffs deeply incised by rivers which plunge straight into the sea at several places. This aptly named, rugged and isolated coast is difficult to access, which has contributed to maintaining large areas of undeveloped land.

About half of the coastline is comprised of indigenous coastal forest that exhibits high levels of biodiversity. Some 900 grassland and forest species with commercial, traditional and homeopathic value have been identified. Five marine and nature reserves cover 19% of the coastline: Dwesa; Cwebe; Hluleka; and, Mkambati. Although currently administered as a reserve by East Cape Nature Conservation, Silaka has yet to be established in terms of law. Many of the forests are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, and the remaining coastal land falls under communal tribal tenure.

The nine Magisterial Districts of the Wild Coast had an estimated population of 1.1 million in 1995, with about 8 000 residing in the main coastal town of Port St John’s. Most of this region’s population is located well inland of the coast. A number of holiday resort settlements have been established at places like Trennerys, Mazeppa Bay and Coffee Bay. Infrastructure is, however, poor. Port St John’s and Coffee Bay are the only towns served by a tarred road.

The region is dominated by rural subsistence activities, and a high percentage of men are absent as they are involved in migrant labour. Most economic activities are located well inland, with employment primarily in the Government sector. The coast nonetheless provides an important source of food and other resources for local people. Estuaries and mangrove areas are used to some extent by tourists for fishing and boating, and by the local population for food and building materials.

There is a small forestry industry and fruit and sugarcane farming are becoming more common. The Wild Coast, however, contributes only a small proportion to the economy of the Eastern Cape. Moreover, the virtual collapse of the local administration has created a climate in which uncontrolled, and often illegal, coastal resource use occurs.

With spectacular scenery, deep and fertile soils and a low level of development, agriculture, forestry and tourism are the main potential growth industries, and form the basis of the proposed Wild Coast Spatial Development Initiative. Opportunities should be aimed at small-scale farmers and small, medium and micro enterprises around cultural and nature-based tourism. There is, however, some concern about the extent to which small-scale businesses will derive benefits from this initiative. The challenge will be to bring about much needed investment and development that will benefit local communities and the region as a whole, without compromising the rich natural resource base.

Issues: Wild Coast

Our National Heritage

There is poor public access to the coast due to topography, lack of infrastructure, state-owned land (e.g., forest reserves).

Locals experience difficulties in entering the fishing and tourism markets.

Quota allocations are perceived to be discriminatory.

Coastal Planning and Development

The impacts of macro-economic policies are poorly understood.

There is a high level of unemployment.

The majority of communities do not benefit from local fishing.

The area is largely under-developed due to limited economic opportunities, poor infrastructure and services.

There are no regional structure plans or methods for environmental monitoring of development.

There is a need to integrate coastal management principles into the Spatial Development Initiatives.

There is confusion about ownership rights due to land restitution issues, causing delays in development proposals.

Nature-based coastal tourism opportunities exist and could benefit local communities.

Lack of appropriate sewage infrastructure causes pollution of coastal waters.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

A general concern exists about pollution control and enforcement of land-based waste management measures being inadequate.

Natural Resource Management

Many areas have high natural heritage value.

There is a need to identify and protect sensitive and unique areas.

Over-use of resources causes depletion, particularly inter-tidal resources.

Poverty impacts negatively on natural resources.

Uncontrolled wood harvesting for curios is a problem.

Collection of plants for muti on an unsustainable basis destroys valuable natural resources.

Slash and burn agriculture has a negative impact on air and water quality.

Governance and Capacity Building

Structures for public participation are lacking.

The important role of traditional leaders and communal tenure needs to be recognised.

Relationships between local communities and nature conservation agencies are problematic.

Environmental education and awareness programmes are needed.

There is a need for capacity building amongst local communities and officials to enable more meaningful participation in coastal management.

There is a lack of ability within local Government to deal with conflicts around land use, as demonstrated by the need for the Heath Commission to investigate illegal coastal development.

Inadequate knowledge about legislation gives rise to disputes.

Traditional rural councils are unclear about policies for resettlement.

The collapse of Government in the area has lead to serious administrative problems.

There is no co-ordinated or integrated development planning between local authorities and communities.

Thuggery and crime are rife in areas.

Safety of tourists is of great concern.

KWAZULU-NATAL PROVINCE

KwaZulu-Natal Province is made up of the Hibiscus, Durban Metro, LowerTugela/ Dolphin, Zululand and Maputaland coastal regions.

Hibiscus Coast

The Hibiscus Coast is a popular holiday destination that extends 127 km from the Umtamvuna River to the Ilovo River, south of the Durban Metro.

The region has a warm sub-tropical climate with plentiful rain, 1 000 –1 200 mm annually, that falls mainly in summer. The coast consists predominantly of coarse sandy beaches and occasional rocky headlands and wave-cut platforms. The most prominent offshore reefs occur at the Aliwal Shoal/Landers complex off Umkomaas and the Protea Banks off Shelley Beach.

The warm coastal waters support high biodiversity due to the range of habitats the region offers. Pelagic and reef fish and many inshore species such as mussels, oysters, redbait and rock lobster are heavily utilised. At present, there is only one small protected area, the Trafalgar Marine Reserve.

The region has about 50 estuaries, the highest number and density of estuaries on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Large rivers include the Mkomazi and Mzimkulu rivers. Mangroves, reedbeds and swamp forests are associated with some rivers. The coastal vegetation is mainly sub-tropical thicket, which features an exceptionally high number of endemic species, despite generally infertile soils.

The combination of past racially-based controls and the concentration of industry inland has resulted in relatively small numbers of people living on the coast. The three Magisterial Districts of the Hibiscus Coast had an estimated population of 424 000 in 1995, about 82% of whom live in the rural former KwaZulu area. Infrastructure and services are limited here, with poor roads and a lack of basic services. There is a flow of people out of the region to areas where more jobs can be found. The former Natal districts, on the other hand, contain many small towns, where infrastructure, road and other communication networks and services are well developed. Port Shepstone is the dominant economic and administrative centre and the Uvongo-Margate coastal strip is the main tourist and holiday destination.

A large proportion of the economic activity in this region is due to tourism and recreation. During holiday periods there is a large influx of visitors from all over the country. SCUBA diving, based mainly on the offshore reefs in the region, has emerged as an important industry, with some 40 000 divers visiting Aliwal Shoal annually. Charter boat fishing is also emerging as an increasingly popular activity. While tourism infrastructure is well developed, there is concern that development has not always been pursued in an environmentally responsible manner.

Issues: Hibiscus Coast

Our National Heritage

Public access is limited due to private ownership.

Only a few parties derive economic benefits from coastal activities.

Coastal Planning and Development

Mechanisms are needed to "marry" economic development and conservation, to reduce conflict and optimise development opportunities.

Some of the existing and proposed tourism development plans reflect a lack of understanding of environmental and cultural values.

Fragmented development leads to loss of prime agricultural land and reduces amenity value.

The location of the coastal railway line is controversial.

Lack of proper infrastructure and services and the general condition of housing has a detrimental effect on the general aesthetic appeal of the region.

Too many non-coastal dependent developments are located on the coast.

This region is an important tourism and holiday destination.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

Rivers are polluted which is compounded by poor catchment management, damming of rivers and discharge of effluent into river systems.

Sugarcane burning causes air and water pollution.

Natural Resource Management

Poor catchment management practices lead to degraded rivers and estuaries and massive soil erosion — control efforts appear to be ineffective.

There is a concern over the negative impact of off-road vehicles on dune vegetation, resulting in increased erosion and wind-blown sand problems.

There is a need to review the ecological effect of shark nets.

Governance and Capacity Building

There is public apathy about coastal management.

Responsibility for dealing with infringements on the Admiralty Reserve is perceived to be unclear (note: the Department of Public Works is responsible for administering use in those areas not controlled by Transitional Local Councils).

Very little co-ordination occurs between various planning and development initiatives.

Durban Metro

The Durban Metro region is dominated by the Durban Metropolis and extends 52 km from the Ilovo River to the Tongaat River.

The region has a warm sub-tropical climate, with plentiful rainfall (1 000 – 1 200 mm per annum), falling mainly in summer.

The warm coastal waters support many species of fish, including shad, zebra, stumpnose, mullet and karanteen, and invertebrates such as rock lobster and mole crabs. Shark nets are maintained off most beaches to protect swimmers, but they have a negative impact on species such as rays, turtles and dolphins.

The coastline is mostly coarse sandy beaches backed by low dunes. Occasional rocky outcrops, most notable at the entrance to Durban Bay, interrupt the long beaches. Durban Bay is a natural lagoon that has been developed into southern Africa’s major port. There are other important estuaries on the Mgeni, Mlazi, Manzimtoti, Ilovo and Molloti rivers.

The development of the harbour and Durban beachfront infrastructure has impacted heavily on the coast. To avoid erosion and maintain the beaches, an expensive sand-pumping scheme has been installed. Durban Bay still, however, plays an important role as an estuary, supporting diverse fish and invertebrate communities. Inter-tidal resources are only lightly exploited, as most of this coast is closed to collection.

The Durban Metropolitan Council area had a population of approximately 1.9 million in 1995, although that of the wider metropolitan region was in excess of 3 million. Despite good infrastructure, about a third of the population is still without formal housing and basic services.

The port handles over 5 000 vessels and over a million containers annually and employs, directly and indirectly, between 20 000 and 30 000 people. More than half of all formal employment is provided by the manufacturing, commerce and financial sectors. Petro-chemicals and textiles are important industrial activities in the region, with large industrial sites located just south of the city and inland at Pinetown. Coastal pollution, from sources such as soil erosion, industrial wastes and shipping, pose a major challenge for the region.

The region has a wide range of natural and human-made attributes that make the area an attractive destination, with approximately 1.5 million people visiting in 1997. The beaches are the most popular attraction (40% of all visitors to KwaZulu-Natal travel to the province to visit Durban’s beaches). The region’s accessibility (from other parts of the country) and affordability ensure that Durban will remain one of the premier holiday destinations, at least in terms of the domestic market.

Issues: Durban Metro Coast

Our National Heritage

The coast is a prime national asset and should not benefit only a privileged few.

Private ownership of the coast (e.g., Transnet) is of concern as it limits public access and opportunities to link the city with the sea.

Coastal Planning and Development

There is a high level of unemployment.

Integrated Development Plans currently being prepared by various coastal local authorities should be speeded up and should guide future decision-making.

There is a need to promote integrated development opportunities.

The Durban Metro Open Space (D'MOSS) Framework Plan will fortunately provide for protection of key coastal ecosystems.

Planning and management of Durban city should attempt to retain the coast’s amenity value and visual quality.

Port development opportunities need to be optimised, recognising the physical constraints of Durban Bay and the need for integration of the bay and the city.

There is a need to consider the possible development of an Industrial Development Zone adjacent to Durban Bay.

Buy-in by key stakeholders is required in planning and development proposals.

There is a concern about the ability of local authorities to manage sprawling development.

Development disrupting coastal processes and increasing the risk of hazards and maintenance costs should be prevented.

Poor infrastructure and services in certain areas and overcrowding have resulted in informal dwellings being erected in environmentally sensitive areas.

Informal settlements need to be better managed.

The likely expansion of the petro-chemical sector and associated impacts need careful consideration.

Many opportunities for coastal tourism development exist, but these need to be well planned, so as not to "kill the goose that lays the golden egg".

Tourists often have little regard for the natural environment; they litter, demand infrastructure irrespective of impacts, and do not carry the burden of additional costs of maintenance and rehabilitation.

Durban is a tourist and holiday destination, especially due to the attraction of its beaches, but concern exists about crime.

Waterfront development potential needs to be further explored.

Public safety and security is of concern.

There is a need to monitor and manage water quality in Durban Bay and metro coastline.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

Concern exists about the uncaring attitude by industries that pollute and pay little compensation.

Problems associated with runoff from informal settlements into Durban Bay need to be addressed.

Industrial pollution needs to be strictly monitored (particularly in the light of possible expansions).

A potential increase in marine and terrestrial pollution is associated with the likely expansion of the petro-chemical sector.

Pollution from shipping needs to be strictly controlled.

Natural Resource Management

Many important coastal resources would be conserved through the implementation of D'MOSS.

There is a need for protection and management of remaining indigenous coastal vegetation.

A debate exists over the possible irreversible loss of natural habitat (e.g., sand banks and mangroves) if further infilling of Durban Bay occurs.

Massive soil erosion occurs due to improper catchment management.

Channelisation of rivers (e.g., Umlaas) is a concern.

There is a need to review the ecological effects of shark nets.

Governance and Capacity Building

There is a need to develop a caring attitude and practice towards the use of the coast and its resources.

There is a need to use Coast Watch.

There is a poor relationship between Portnet and the City Council.

Conflict occurs among coastal user groups (e.g., boating, anglers, surfers, swimming).

The Durban Metro Environmental Policy Initiative offers opportunities for institutional restructuring around environmental management functions.

Environmental education is needed.

Lower Tugela / Dolphin Coast

The Dolphin Coast is a sub-tropical region, extending 70 km from Tongaat River to the Tugela River mouth.

The region has a warm climate with plentiful rain (1 000 – 1 200 mm annually) that falls mainly in summer. Warm coastal waters support a wide variety of fish and shellfish that are targeted by recreational and commercial fishers. Species include shad, karanteen, stumpnose, blacktail and mullet, as well as mussels, rock lobsters, redbait, oysters, limpets, ghost crabs and prawns.

The coastline is characterised by coarse sandy beaches enclosed between rocky outcrops. The Tugela is the largest river in the region and there are several estuaries. There has been substantial modification to the natural environment due to land clearing for sugarcane and timber cultivation, as well as coastal housing development. Very little natural vegetation remains and that which remains is mostly on privately owned land.

The Lower Tugela Magisterial District had an estimated population of 104 000 in 1995. The main residential and tourism nodes are Ballito, Salt Rock, Tinley Manor, Blythdale and Zinkwazi. The economy of this region is dominated by agriculture (predominantly sugarcane), light industry (engineering, wood products, paper and packaging) and tourism. Due to its proximity to Durban and the accessibility of beaches, recreational harvesting of inshore resources is extensive, but there is little subsistence use. Most of the industrial areas are situated on the primary development axis between Durban and Richards Bay, the focus for new investment in the proposed Spatial Development Initiative for the area.

This region is reputed to have the fastest growing real estate industry along the South African coast. Many private holiday homes and a few hotels are situated in this region. Although much of the coast has been modified, it is likely to continue to attract large numbers of holidaymakers. The proposed new airport at La Mercy, near Tongaat, could benefit the area and increase the number of visitors to the region.

Issues: Lower Tugela / Dolphin Coast

Our National Heritage

The coast is a prime asset and benefits from it should not be limited to a privileged few.

The area is perceived as the playground of the rich.

Public access to the coast is limited by private ownership of land adjacent to the coast.

Coastal Planning and Development

Unemployment levels are high — job creation is required.

The local economy is dominated by relatively few enterprises.

Concern exists about ribbon development in some areas along the coast.

Disruption of coastal processes increases the risk of hazards, often leading to "quick-fix" efforts to construct or maintain protective works, the cost of which is often borne by the public.

The area has considerable tourism potential, but there is concern about the apparent loss of the wealthy sector of the tourism market to the Western Cape.

Tourism development is hampered by a lack of infrastructure.

Opportunities for and advantages of tourism development are not adequately exploited.

Sugarcane yields offer marginal economic returns – there is a need to consider diversifying agricultural activities.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

Sugarcane burning causes air pollution and ash deposition on surface runoff that ends up in rivers.

Waste management responsibilities are perceived to be unclear.

Natural Resource Management

Estuarine degradation results from poor catchment management practices and poor development planning.

Poverty causes depletion of resources.

Over-exploitation of living marine resources (fish, rock lobster, prawns and mussels) is inadequately controlled.

There is a loss of indigenous vegetation to sugarcane farming.

Concern exists about the environmental impact of sand mining.

Governance and Capacity Building

Public apathy about coastal matters is a cause for concern.

Insufficient attention is given to education on environmental/coastal issues.

Skills, capacity and financial resources are very limited.

There is confusion and uncertainty about roles and responsibilities.

There is poor monitoring and inadequate enforcement of existing regulations.

Conflict occurs among coastal user groups (e.g., ski-boats, anglers, swimming and surfers).

Use of boats and off-road vehicles is not effectively regulated.

uThungulu: Zululand Coast

The Zululand coastal region extends 134 km from the Tugela River in the south to the St Lucia estuary in the north.

The coastal waters are warm, influenced by the Agulhas Current, and support a variety of coastal and marine organisms, including prawns, lobster, mussels, octopus, fish, whales and whale sharks. The region has a warm sub-tropical climate with good summer rains (1 000 – 1 200 mm annually). The vegetation is generally tropical and sub-tropical thicket, with tropical forest north of Mtunzini. Extensive sugarcane farming and timber production occurs adjacent to the coast.

The coast is dominated by long sandy beaches, backed by high forested dunes, and broad coastal plains with many rivers, coastal lakes and wetlands. These lake and estuarine systems support valuable wetlands, rich in papyrus, swamp forests and mangroves. They also support a wide variety of birds and animals, including, in some cases, hippos and crocodiles. The region contains several estuaries, some of which are proclaimed protected areas.

The three Magisterial Districts of the Zululand Coast had an estimated population of 79 000 in 1995, but the population of the regional hinterland was in the order of 1.8 million. The only coastal city in the region is Richards Bay, which has an important deep water harbour. The region also has a well developed road network and airport facilities.

The economy of the region is dominated by port activities, light and heavy industry, mining, sugarcane and timber.

Formal employment and economic activity is centred around Richards Bay, which supports some 300 000 people in the coastal and hinterland areas. The Mandini/Isithebe industrial sites and the sugarcane industry support more than 100 000 and 300 000 people respectively. The coastal dunes are rich in heavy minerals, especially oxides of titanium. Richards Bay Minerals has extensively mined the dunes to the north of Richards Bay.

A wide variety of fish and shellfish are targeted by recreational and commercial fishers, but over-exploitation has caused the decline of some reef and linefish stocks. There is an important prawn fishery centred on the Tugela Bank and a land-based prawn mariculture operation in the region.

Concern has been expressed about pollution in the region, particularly sewage and industrial effluent pipelines discharging into the sea.

With the correct precautions and effective planning and control, the mix of industry, mining, agriculture, forestry, and nature- and culture-based tourism could provide a robust and sustainable economic foundation for the region.

Issues: Zululand Coast

Our National Heritage

Physical and equitable public access to resources is limited by poor infrastructure and nature conservation policies that restrict access to traditionally harvested resources.

Coastal Planning and Development

Unemployment is high in disadvantaged coastal communities.

Local communities currently derive little economic benefit from the coast.

Job creation and entrepreneurial development opportunities are inadequate.

There is a need to balance and integrate industrial development with nature conservation and the needs of marginalised communities in the region (particularly necessary in the Richards Bay area).

Establishment of coastal tourism and recreational facilities is uncoordinated and unregulated.

Nature-based coastal tourism and recreational opportunities are insufficiently developed.

Opportunities for appropriate tourism and recreational development around coastal lakes are not optimised.

Safe and accessible bathing areas are limited.

The potential exists for heavy mineral mining and industrial development, but the associated impacts need to be carefully considered.

Port-related development opportunities should be actively explored.

The significant erosion of Richards Bay beach due to port development needs attention.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

Better control of air pollution from industry and sugarcane burning is required.

Industrial effluent discharged into rivers and offshore should be strictly monitored and controlled.

Coastal waters are polluted by ballast water discharge and oil spillages from ships.

Industrial pollution around Richards Bay constrains tourism development.

Natural Resource Management

There is a loss of biodiversity due to single crop farming and commercial forestry.

There is inadequate protection of sensitive coastal dunes.

Insufficient marine and terrestrial areas are conserved.

Concern exists about depletion of living marine resources, particularly inter-tidal organisms and certain linefish.

Poor catchment management and sugarcane cultivation on river banks causes negative impacts on rivers, lakes, estuaries and the coast.

Soil erosion in catchment areas causes siltation of river mouths.

Forestry lowers the water table and could lead to salt-water intrusion.

The impacts of dune mining need attention.

There is insufficient recognition of the value of indigenous knowledge.

Herbalists need education on sustainable utilisation of natural resources.

Governance and Capacity Building

Public apathy exists because there is no sense of ownership.

There is a lack of capacity, resources and skills to administer existing regulations.

Recently introduced regulations are impractical.

There is a lack of co-ordination between Government and non-government stakeholders and between local and tribal authorities.

Use of off-road vehicles and jet skis is not sufficiently regulated.

The process of addressing situations where people have been forcibly removed from coastal areas, in some cases for the sake of conservation, needs to be speeded up.

User conflicts occur between industry, recreational, commercial and subsistence users.

Unauthorised immigration from Mozambique occurs.

uThungulu: Maputaland Coast

The Maputaland coastal region is well known for its natural features and scenic beauty. It stretches 179 km from the mouth of the St Lucia estuary to the border between South Africa and Mozambique, just north of Kosi Bay.

The region has a warm sub-tropical climate and is occasionally exposed to summer tropical cyclones. Mean annual rainfall is 1 300 – 1 400 mm, and occurs throughout the year.

The warm coastal waters are the only truly tropical waters in South Africa. The region supports extensive wetlands. It has diverse wildlife, including whales, sharks, crocodiles and hippopotami.

Sodwana Bay is one of the prime areas in South Africa for gamefish, such as black marlin and sailfish. The beaches provide important nesting sites for loggerhead and leatherback turtles.

The region is characterised by large inter-connecting lakes, high forested dunes, sandy beaches and low cliffs. The St Lucia lake and estuary run parallel to the coast for 60 km and form the largest estuarine system in southern Africa.

The southernmost coral reef system in the Indian Ocean and deep, steep-sided submarine canyons, possibly remnants of ancient river mouths, are located a few kilometres from the shore. These marine features fall entirely within the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, which includes the St Lucia Park and the Maputaland Marine Reserve.

Vegetation in the wetland areas includes mangroves, swamp forests and reeds. Tall, forested coastal dunes are also features of this region.

The three Magisterial Districts of the Maputaland Coast had an estimated population of 502 000 in 1995, with St Lucia Village being the only sizeable town along the coast. A significant feature of the region is the poor infrastructure (only 5% of the population have access to proper sanitation). The region is dominated by rural subsistence activities.

The economy is based primarily on subsistence agriculture and the sale of handcrafts at the tourist centres of Sodwana and St Lucia. SCUBA diving is an important activity along the Maputaland Coast, especially at Sodwana, which is visited by over 60 000 divers annually. There is extensive recreational and subsistence fishing in the region. Traditional fish traps are used, especially in the vicinity of the Kosi Bay lake system. There is heavy mineral mining north of Richards Bay, and a controversial proposal to mine the eastern shores of the St Lucia Park.

The beautiful scenery and natural features, such as the lakes, reefs, wildlife and warm seas, give this region considerable potential for nature-based tourism. With appropriate planning and the development of infrastructure, this region could provide an important economic base for nature- and culture-based tourism for the benefit of coastal communities. This is the focus of the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative that has commenced in the region.

Issues: Maputaland Coast

Our National Heritage

Physical and equitable access to resources is limited by poor infrastructure, nature conservation policies and forced removals from ancestral lands.

There is a lack of access to prime land.

There does not appear to be equitable access to diving concessions.

Quota allocations are perceived to be discriminatory.

Coastal Planning and Development

Local communities currently derive limited economic benefits from the coast.

The area is generally under-developed.

There is a high concentration of people on limited land.

No economic development framework exists.

Unemployment is high, especially amongst disadvantaged communities.

There is insufficient investment in job creation.

Socio-economic circumstances have resulted in an increase in crime.

Conservation objectives dominate over economic development objectives.

A perception exists that an insufficient portion of revenue generated (e.g., park fees) is reinvested locally.

No forums exist to guide development.

Business interests are not represented on development forums.

Development is hampered by confusion over land claims.

Implications of the Lubombo road corridor need careful consideration.

Potential exists for nature-based coastal tourism.

A lack of infrastructure and services negatively affect community development and the potential development of the tourism industry.

Limited access hinders tourist exposure to natural assets.

Potential for heavy mineral mining exists but needs careful assessment.

Design and location of buildings should take account of potential climatic discomfort, heat stress and tropical cyclones.

Cultural assets (e.g., Kosi fish-kraals) need to be protected.

The right to conduct religious ceremonies has been denied.

Pollution Control and Waste Management

Large quantities of sediment result in murky water along the coast at times.

There is unsightly litter in an otherwise largely pristine area.

Natural Resource Management

There is a need to identify and manage priority areas for protection.

Management of existing protected areas and burial sites needs to be improved.

The area has high natural heritage value.

The air quality is pristine.

Poor catchment management impacts negatively on the coastal environment and lake systems.

The character of the coastal lakes may be changed by excessive sedimentation.

Closure of the St Lucia estuary affects the estuary's ecological role and function.

There is a need to maintain the natural exchanges of sediment between beach and ocean, and beach and dunes.

There is over-exploitation of natural resources, particularly fish, reeds and forest products.

There is excessive regulation of subsistence and small-scale commercial fishing

Offshore trawling compromises the recreational fishing industry.

There is a need to control diver impacts on reefs.

Governance and Capacity Building

People do not really have a sense that the coast belongs to them and that they have a role to play in its management.

There is very little public participation in management and decision-making.

There are poor relations between local communities and conservation agencies.

Too many forums exists, with insufficient communication between them.

Confusion and lack of clarity exists over regulations.

Development applications take considerable time to process.

Use of boats and off-road vehicles is not effectively regulated.

Staff of controlling authorities have inadequate knowledge and understanding.

There is a lack of Governmental support to resolve land claims.

The important role of traditional leaders and communal tenure systems needs to be recognised in the formal planning and management of the coast.

There is poor co-ordination between sectors within Government and with the private sector.

User conflicts occur between nature conservation, recreational and subsistence users.

South Africa and Mozambique do not share a consistent and complementary policy.

Unauthorised immigration from Mozambique occurs.

Prince Edward Islands

The Prince Edward Islands - Marion and Prince Edward islands — are small, remote and inaccessible volcanic islands located approximately 2 000 km south of Cape Town, half-way to Antarctica and in the middle of the Southern Ocean. Both islands are roughly circular and have rugged coasts with steep, rocky cliffs rising vertically from the sea. The coastlines of Marion and Prince Edward islands are about 72 km and 29 km respectively. Beaches generally comprise boulders rather than sand and there are very few bays or rivers.

The weather on the islands is severe. The wind blows almost continuously, frequently reaching gale-force. Sunshine is rare and rainfall is an almost daily occurrence, which, combined with poor drainage, results in water-logged soils. For the most part, the islands are covered in peat bogs carpeted with moss and ferns, while lichens grow in the more mountainous areas. There are no trees or shrubs.

The islands are used by large colonies of sea-birds and seals for breeding purposes, and in the case of penguins, to sit out their vulnerable moulting period.

The Prince Edward Islands form South Africa’s southernmost territory, having been annexed by the country in the late 1940s. Active sealing took place in the past, but since these activities ceased, the seals have been left relatively undisturbed. Prince Edward Island is totally uninhabited and is virtually pristine, but Marion Island has been used for scientific research since its annexation. The islands were declared Special Nature Reserves about ten years ago.

The main threat to these sub-Antarctic islands is the introduction of alien plant and animal species. Marion Island has been particularly susceptible to imported alien species in the past, often with disastrous consequences. Mice introduced by sealers in the mid -19th century continue to have a severe impact on the insects, a vital component in the nutrient recycling system of the island. In a misguided effort to control mice populations, cats were brought to the island about 50 years ago. This soon back-fired, as they rapidly bred out of control and started attacking the sea-birds, thus necessitating a costly campaign to eradicate the cats.

The islands’ remoteness offers the opportunity for specialised tourism. The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism is currently considering opening Marion Island to limited and controlled tourism. While a financial boost would undoubtedly be very helpful to maintain the limited infrastructure, and to assist cash-strapped research projects, the impacts caused by tourists would need to be closely monitored and strictly controlled.

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