Coastal Policy Green Paper Towards Sustainable Coastal Development in South Africa Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism September 1998

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Coastal Management Policy Programme (Association incorporated under Section 21) 1998.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword
Preamble
Key Findings
Introduction: Why a Coastal Policy?

SECTION A: MANAGING THE COAST

Chapter 1 What is the Coast?
Chapter 2 What is the Value of our Coast?
Chapter 3 What is Coastal Management

SECTION B: THE SOUTH AFRICAN COAST

Chapter 4 Our Coast in Context
Chapter 5 An Overview of our Coast
Chapter 6 Regional Characteristics and Issues

SECTION C: TOWARDS A COASTAL POLICY

Chapter 7 Some Key Policy Questions
Chapter 8 Vision and Principles
Chapter 9 Goals and Objectives
Chapter 10 Possible Institutional & Legal Arrangements
Chapter 11 Next Steps

APPENDICES

Glossary
Appendix 1 Stages of the Coastal Management Policy Programme
Appendix 2 The Institutional and Legal Setting
Appendix 3 Some Instruments for Implementation of Coastal Policy
Appendix 4 Contributing Specialists
References

FIGURES AND TABLES
FIGURES

(Coming soon or download these figures from the following address: http://www.cmpp.co.za)

1. Coastal Activities
2. Coastal Boundaries of Relevant Laws and Conventions
3. Understanding the Coastal System
4. Rainfall
5. Oceans and Currents
6. Coastal Vegetation
7. Scenes from the West, South and East Coasts
8. Population Density
9. Gross Geographic Product
10. Coastal Regions
11. Namaqualand
12. West Coast
13. Cape Metro
14. Agulhas Coast
15. Garden Route
16. Sunshine Coast
17. Border-Kei
18. Wild Coast
19. Hibiscus Coast
20. Durban Metro
21. Lower Tugela/Dolphin Coast
22. Zululand Coast
23. Maputaland Coast
24. Prince Edward Islands
25. Model A: Coastal Commission
26. Model B: National – Provincial Coastal Units
27. Model C: Fostering Strategic Alliances

TABLES

1. Landward and Seaward Boundaries
2. Estimated Value of Direct Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems
3. Estimated Value of Indirect Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems
4. Types of Integration Required in Coastal Management
5. South Africa’s Estuaries
6. Key Elements of the Regional Vision Statements

Comments on this Coastal Policy Green Paper should be addressed to:

COASTAL MANAGEMENT POLICY PROGRAMME
PO Box 1828
Cape Town
8000

Tel: (021) 424-5054
Fax: (021) 424-2495
E-mail: cmpp@iafrica.com

The closing date for comments is 16 November 1998

REGIONAL MANAGER CONTACT DETAILS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This Green Paper is the product of extensive input from interested and affected parties and coastal specialists and managers. It is not possible to list, by name, all those who have contributed to this effort. What must be made clear, however, is that the Green Paper could not have been prepared without this input and support – it has been a collective effort.

The support of the Ministry and Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism is gratefully acknowledged. The British Department for International Development has not only provided generous financial support, it has also given valuable guidance and advice. Policy Committee members have provided important insight, experience and direction. The practical insight of Regional Managers has also been important. Substantial contributions to this document have also been made by a number of specialists and Government officials, who have either served on Specialist Study Teams, or Task Teams, or made individual contributions.

FOREWORD

South Africa's coast is a rich and diverse national asset. A robust yet delicate system, the coast is a source of opportunity for many South Africans. It is the bedrock of coastal communities and is of immense strategic importance to many economic sectors including tourism, trade, mining, agriculture and fisheries.

It is of the utmost importance to South Africa's broader economy that the opportunities provided by the coast are harnessed and managed in an equitable and sustainable manner. It is also both our privilege and our responsibility to preserve the integrity of the coast for current and future generations.

It is for these reasons that the Ministry has initiated the formulation of a Coastal Policy. This would not have been possible without the generous funding provided by the British Department for International Development. In keeping with a sincere commitment to co-operative governance, the Ministry has appointed a Policy Committee representative of government and civil society to prepare the policy.

This Coastal Policy Green Paper is the result of an extensive process of public participation and reflects the aims and interests of a broad range of stakeholders who live and work along the coast. The purpose of this document is to stimulate lively debate around issues and policy options that have been generated through the combination of specialist knowledge and stakeholder input.

I urge all South Africans to participate in this debate. This Green Paper is the first step towards integrated coastal management and the first step towards sustainable coastal development. The next step, which is the formulation of a practical and strategic Coastal Policy White Paper, is dependent on your input. The coast is our asset and our heritage — we should afford it the respect and the attention it deserves.

DR Z. PALLO JORDAN
MINISTER OF ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS AND TOURISM

PREAMBLE

The need for an integrated Coastal Policy to manage South Africa’s dynamic and bountiful coast has long been recognised. This Coastal Policy Green Paper builds on studies and research previously undertaken by our local marine and coastal scientific community. Considerable work in the field of coastal management has also been carried out by the Department of Environmental Affairs, as well as provincial nature conservation and planning departments. This Green Paper has its roots in this earlier work, particularly that carried out by the Council for the Environment’s Committee for Coastal and Marine Systems in the late 1980s. In building on this past work, and integrating it with input from an extensive process of public participation, the Green Paper lays the foundation for a new era of coastal management in South Africa.

The Coastal Management Policy Programme was initiated by the Ministry of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, in response to the recognition of the vital role that our coast can play in South Africa’s future development. Having secured funding from the British Department for International Development, the Ministry appointed a Policy Committee to prepare a draft policy.

The Policy Committee is a significant partnership between Government and civil society and represents the interests of national Government, provincial Government, business, labour, community-based organisations, environmental non-governmental organisations and the sport and recreational sector. Each member has equal status and all decisions are made by consensus. The Policy Committee is made up of the following individuals:

• Thandi Bosman from SANCO National, representing the interests of Community-Based Organisations.
• Neels Brink from the Property Division of the Tongaat-Hulett Group, representing the interests of Business.
• Neil Fox from KwaZulu-Natal Province: Department of Local Government and Housing, representing Provincial Government.
• Mandla Gidana from the Food and Allied Workers Union, representing the interests of Labour.
• Andy Gubb from the Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa, representing the interests of Environmental non-governmental organisations.
• Dennis Laidler from Western Cape Province: Cape Nature Conservation, representing Provincial Government.
• Dr Niel Malan from the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism: Coastal Management Unit, representing National Government.
• Maria Mbengashe from Eastern Cape Province: Department of Economic Affairs, Environment and Tourism, representing Provincial Government.
• Professor Jeff McCarthy from the University of Durban Westville’s Graduate School of Business and Institute for Social and Economic Research (independent Chairperson).
• Saythie Mithar from Northern Cape Province: Department of Health, Social Welfare and Environment, representing Provincial Government.
• Rudy van der Elst from the Oceanographic Research Institute, representing the interests of Sport and Recreation.

The Policy Committee appointed a Project Management Team to conduct the day-to-day management of the programme. The Project Management Team is co-ordinated by the following independent consultants:

• Deon Retief of Watermeyer Prestedge Retief
• Muller Coetzee, Bruce Glavovic and David Shandler of Common Ground Consulting.

Regional Managers have been appointed to co-ordinate regional activities:

• Richard Martin of Richard Martin Consulting (Namaqualand, West Coast, Cape Metro, Agulhas)
• Sandra Wren and Mazizi Msutu of Public Process Consultants (Garden Route, Sunshine Coast)
• Larry Field and Siyabulela Manona of Ikhwezi Development Facilitators (Wild Coast, Border Kei)
• Mfezeko Sineke and Homer Michaelides of Participative Solutions Africa (Hibiscus Coast, Durban Metro)
• Duncan Hay of the Institute of Natural Resources (Lower Tugela/Dolphin Coast, Zululand, Maputaland).

The Coastal Management Policy Programme has four fundamental goals. These are:

The programme aims to ensure that all stakeholders will have the opportunity to participate in all stages of the policy formulation process, thereby ensuring broad ownership and a commitment to the final policy.

To develop a policy that has scientific integrity

This policy builds on the considerable body of knowledge and understanding about coastal systems and resources that has been developed through scientific research over many years.

Effective coastal management requires partnerships between Government, civil society and the private sector. Integrated coastal management also refers to the need to co-ordinate and integrate the activities that take place at the coast.

In order to be effective, the policy must be focused and practical, addressing priority and strategic coastal issues. A practical policy should be an ongoing process that includes policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of results, and, where appropriate, revisions to both the policy and implementation measures.

To achieve these goals it has been necessary to engage meaningfully with the scientific community, the public and all levels of Government.

To date, over 70 specialists have been involved in four Specialist Studies designed to provide vital information for the policy (see Appendix 4).The Study Teams were selected by an independent panel appointed by the South African Network for Coastal and Oceanographic Research. The studies have been independently reviewed and include:

• An assessment of related initiatives currently underway that could affect or be affected by the Coastal Policy
• Lessons learned from past experience, both nationally and internationally
• An assessment of the characteristics of the regions and resources of our coast
• An analysis of the laws and Government structures involved in coastal management.
• In addition, a specialist Task Team has contributed to the preparation of this Green Paper.

An extensive process of public participation has been the cornerstone for the development of this Green Paper. Twenty two visioning events were held around the coast in November and December 1997, involving over 800 people from more than 200 organisations. Over 40 regional meetings to discuss policy options were held between April and May 1998, involving over 500 people from more than 200 organisations. There has been ongoing consultation by Regional Managers, each of whom is in direct contact with between 400 and 800 stakeholders. Aside from public meetings, the Regional Managers have held one-on-one meetings and capacity building sessions with over 1 000 people from more than 200 organisations. Over 150 written submissions have already been received.

Programme information is distributed quarterly to approximately 17 000 people through the programme newsletter "Our Coast", in the four coastal languages, which are Xhosa, Zulu, Afrikaans and English. Similar levels of public participation will be maintained throughout the remaining stages of the programme, thereby resulting in a policy that truly reflects the interests of all South Africans.

There has been and will continue to be ongoing consultation with key Government officials at a national, provincial and local level, as well as with a broad range of political leaders.

On behalf of the Policy Committee, I would like to extend my thanks to the Minister and his Department, as well as to the British Government’s Department for International Development, for their ongoing support and co-operation in the programme.

The Policy Committee would also like to thank all those who have provided input to the preparation of this Coastal Policy Green Paper. We believe that this document should stimulate vigorous debate and look forward to your comments and further involvement in the preparation of the Coastal Policy White Paper.

PROFESSOR JEFF McCARTHY
POLICY COMMITTEE - CHAIRPERSON

KEY FINDINGS

"Africa’s long and beautiful coasts and the abundance of marine resources can contribute to providing economic, food and environmental security for the continent. These coastal and marine resources, like the rest of Africa’s environmental resources, cannot continue to be exploited in a manner that does not benefit Africa and her people. This is a paradox of a people dying from hunger, starvation and poverty when they are potentially so rich and well endowed."

- President Mandela, Excerpt from a message to the forthcoming meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Protection of the Sea, to be held in Cape Town in December 1998.

BACKGROUND

The Green Paper is the product of an extensive process of public participation and specialist study carried out since May 1997 through the Coastal Management Policy Programme. Workshops will be held to obtain feedback on the Green Paper. Based on this feedback and further participation, a White Paper will be prepared, setting out South Africa’s future policy on coastal management. The policy will then be implemented through appropriate institutional and legal arrangements, priority programmes and ongoing monitoring and review. The Coastal Management Policy Programme has generated wide public support for a new and innovative policy. This energy must be harnessed to develop shared responsibility for sustainable coastal development.

These Key Findings outline the need for a Coastal Policy, a vision for our coast, and principles, goals and objectives for coastal management. It also presents possible institutional and legal arrangements for implementing a new Coastal Policy. Key questions are outlined for your consideration and feedback.

NEED FOR A COASTAL POLICY

Our coast is a rich national heritage that provides enormous benefits to the people of South Africa. It offers many opportunities for future economic and social development, particularly in under-developed areas of our country.

At present, the value of coastal ecosystems as a cornerstone for development is not acknowledged in decision-making. Our valuable coastal assets, and future development opportunities, will be squandered unless we maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems. South Africa needs to invest in coastal management to realise and sustain the benefits and opportunities the coast offers.

A radical new approach is needed to manage coastal resources wisely and to harness them for sustainable coastal development. A Coastal Policy is crucial in achieving this change. The Green Paper sets out a new approach to coastal management that aims to:

• Realise coastal benefits
• Sustain coastal benefits
• Promote proactive and co-operative governance.

Realising Coastal Benefits

A Coastal Policy will enable us to optimise the benefits we obtain from the coast. The Green Paper estimates the value of all coastal goods and services in South Africa to be about R179 billion annually – equivalent to 37% of our annual Gross Domestic Product. Examples include:

• At least 3.6 million South Africans depend largely on coastal food sources through subsistence activities, which are worth at least R1.1 billion annually.
• Over R4.2 billion of revenue is generated annually by transporting cargo through South Africa’s ports.
• Tourism, recreational and leisure activities on our coast generate more than R15.2 billion annually, with over 20 million international and domestic visitors each year.
• The South African commercial fishing industry is worth about R1.7 billion annually and employs 27 000 people, with an additional 60 000 people in related sectors. Recreational fishing attracts over 600 000 enthusiasts, employs over 131 000 people and generates over R1.3 billion in revenue each year.
• Eight of the ten current Spatial Development Initiatives are linked to the coast. Their proposals together have an anticipated total value of R90 billion and a projected employment of 90 000 people.

In addition to these direct benefits, our coast has significant aesthetic, cultural, educational, scientific and spiritual value. It also offers future development prospects that exceed those available in most other areas of the country. Our coast provides an important basis for future economic development, poverty reduction and sustainable job creation in South Africa.

Sustaining Coastal Benefits

Providing benefits to all South Africans on a sustained basis is only possible if we wisely manage the coastal ecosystems on which those benefits depend. This means managing coastal ecosystems in a way that recognises their inter-connected nature. Coastal ecosystems involve complex biological, chemical and physical inter-relationships between land and sea. The coast is a high-energy environment that is subject to constant change. These conditions give rise to a variety of landforms, plant and animal species and habitats, and to an abundance of natural resources.

The coast is also the site of complex inter-relationships between humans and natural systems. Although coastal ecosystems are resilient, they are finite and vulnerable to over-use, pollution and damage. Inappropriate decisions can expose human life and property to high risks. While many activities take place at the coast, these are seldom co-ordinated, reducing overall benefits.

Without effective management, many of our coastal resources will be over-used and degraded to the point where social and economic benefits can no longer be drawn from them. Our coast requires a dedicated, co-ordinated and integrated management approach to sustain the coastal ecosystems on which coastal benefits depend.

Promoting Proactive and Co-operative Governance

Current institutional and legal arrangements for coastal management are inefficient and fragmented, and fail to co-ordinate the many activities taking place at the coast. A proactive Coastal Policy is needed to promote harmony between sectoral policies, to strengthen institutional arrangements, to promote co-ordination and integration of planning, management and investment strategies, and to strengthen the human resource base for coastal management.

The Green Paper proposes an approach to coastal management that emphasises facilitation rather than regulation. It promotes co-operative governance and public-private partnerships in an effort to encourage shared responsibility for our special coastal heritage. It also suggests mechanisms for co-ordination and integration between different sectors.

To develop and implement this new approach, an investment must be made in coastal management. Only in this way can we maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems, and thereby realise and sustain the benefits and opportunities they provide. This investment will provide rich rewards to all South Africans. Failure to make such an investment will leave many coastal communities in severe poverty and will reduce options for future development.

In order to develop and implement this new approach, the Green Paper outlines a proposed national vision for our coast, and principles, goals and objectives for coastal management.

VISION AND PRINCIPLES

This proposed vision statement was developed after an extensive process of public participation. Based on your feedback, a final national vision statement will be prepared, discussed and agreed upon.

Proposed National Vision

• We celebrate the diversity and richness of our coast and seek an equitable balance of opportunities and benefits throughout our coast.

• We strive for a coast in which there is a balance between material prosperity, social development, spiritual fulfilment and ecological integrity, in the interests of all South Africans.

• We strive for a time when all South Africans feel that the coast is ours to enjoy in a spirit of community.

• We look forward to a time when all South Africans take responsibility for the health and sustainability of our coast in a spirit of stewardship and caring.

• We seek to guide the management of our coast in a way that benefits current and future generations, and honours our obligations and undertakings from local to global levels.

To realise this vision, we need to set out the principles which guide our actions, and the goals and objectives of the Coastal Policy.

Principles for Coastal Management

To achieve the ideal of sustainable coastal development, the following principles for coastal management are proposed:

1. National heritage. The coast should be retained as a national heritage, with public rights to access and benefit from coastal resources.
2. Economic development. Economic development opportunities at the coast should be optimised to meet basic human needs and to promote human well-being.
3. Social equity. Coastal management efforts should ensure that all people, including future generations, are treated with dignity, fairness and justice.
4. Ecological integrity. The diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems should be maintained.
5. Holism. The coast should be treated as an indivisible system, recognising the inter-relationships between coastal users and ecosystems and between the land and sea.
6. Risk-aversion and precaution. Coastal management efforts should adopt a risk-averse and precautionary approach under conditions of uncertainty.
7. Duty of care. Coastal management is a shared responsibility. All people should be responsible for the consequences of their actions, and have the duty to act with care to avoid damage to others and their coastal environment.
8. Co-ordination and integration. Coastal management efforts should be co-ordinated and integrated, and conducted in an open, inclusive and transparent manner.

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The goals and objectives of the Green Paper are organised into five integrating themes. Each objective is followed by more detailed policy statements in the Green Paper.

THEME A: OUR NATIONAL HERITAGE

• Goal A1: Physical Access

To ensure that the public has the right of physical access to the sea, and to and along the sea-shore, on a managed basis

Objectives:

• Opportunities for public access shall be provided at identified, appropriate coastal locations.
• Where appropriate, public access shall be managed to minimise adverse impacts and to resolve incompatible uses.

• Goal A2: Equitable Access

To ensure that the public has the right of equitable access to the opportunities and benefits of the coast, on a managed basis

Objectives:

• Coastal resources shall be allocated and used in a manner that is fair and just, with particular attention given to the needs of disadvantaged communities.

• Goal A3: State Responsibility

To ensure that the State fulfils its duties as the legal custodian of all coastal State assets on behalf of the people of South Africa

Objectives:

• The State shall retain ownership and ensure effective management of coastal waters and the sea-shore.
• The State shall effectively manage, retain and endeavour to extend the Admiralty Reserve.
• The State shall retain ownership of and ensure effective management of State land along the sea-shore.
• Coastal assets under the control of parastatal organisations shall be managed in the public interest, and coastal resources shall not be alienated for private purposes.

• Goal A4: Distinctive Characteristics and Dedicated Management

To address the distinctive characteristics of the coastal system through dedicated coastal planning and management

Objectives:

• Coastal planning and management efforts shall demonstrate that the inter-relationships between the land and sea, and between coastal ecosystems and human users, have been taken into account.

THEME B: COASTAL PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

• Goal B1: Coast-dependent Economies and Activities

To promote the diversity, vitality and sustainability of coastal economies and activities, giving preference to those that are distinctly coastal or dependent on a coastal location

Objectives:

• Coastal planning and management efforts shall proactively seek to realise the long-term economic development potential of coastal localities and regions.
• Preference shall be given to distinctly coastal economic development opportunities and to activities that are dependent on a coastal location.
• A system of appropriately located and financially sustainable ports, small-craft harbours and related facilities shall be developed and effectively maintained.
• Adequate and appropriate public facilities shall be provided at appropriate coastal locations.
• Opportunities for mariculture shall be identified and encouraged at appropriate coastal locations.
• Coastal tourism and recreational development opportunities shall be identified and promoted at appropriate coastal locations.
• All activities relating to coastal prospecting, mining and the exploitation of petroleum, oil and gas shall be conducted in an environmentally responsible manner.

• Goal B2: Balance and Diversity

To maintain and enhance the diversity and harmony of coastal land- and sea-scapes by maintaining an appropriate balance between built, rural and wilderness areas

Objectives:

• Nodal development and densification of existing nodes shall be promoted to sustain the economic potential and protect the aesthetic, amenity, cultural and ecological values of coastal localities and regions.
• New structures shall be designed and located in a manner that retains the visual beauty, wilderness character and associated benefits of undeveloped coastal areas.
• Inappropriate development in coastal areas of high agricultural potential (including commercial forestry) shall be discouraged.

• Goal B3: Design and Management of Coastal Settlements

To design and manage coastal settlements to be in harmony with local and regional aesthetic, amenity, biophysical and cultural opportunities and constraints

Objectives:

• The design and built form of coastal settlements shall be in harmony with the aesthetic, amenity, biophysical, economic, social and cultural opportunities and constraints of coastal localities and regions.
• Coastal settlements and associated activities shall be managed to promote and enhance the socio-economic benefits of the coastal setting and to minimise adverse effects on coastal ecosystems.

• Goal B4: Risk and Natural Hazards

To plan and manage coastal development so as to avoid increasing the incidence and severity of natural hazards and to avoid exposure of people, property and economic activities to significant risk from dynamic coastal processes

Objectives:

• Coastal development shall be planned and managed to minimise disruption of dynamic coastal processes and to avoid exposure to significant risk from natural hazards.
• The potential consequences of climate change and associated sea-level rise shall be taken into account in all coastal planning and management.

• Goal B5: Historical and Cultural Heritage

To preserve, protect or promote historical and cultural resources and activities of the coast, where appropriate

Objectives:

• Coastal resources of significant historical, archaeological, cultural and scientific value shall be identified and, where appropriate, preserved, protected or promoted.
• Traditional and cultural activities at the coast shall be given special consideration in coastal planning and management.

THEME C: POLLUTION CONTROL AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

• Goal C1: Minimisation and Control

To implement pollution control and waste management measures in order to minimise and strictly control discharges into coastal ecosystems

Objectives:

• The discharge of all land-based point and diffuse sources of pollution that are likely to end up in coastal estuaries, ground and surface waters and the air shall be minimised and strictly controlled.
• The discharge of marine pollutants and waste, especially ship-board waste, marine fuels and ballast waters, into coastal waters shall be minimised and strictly controlled.
• Adequate and effective anticipatory and reactive measures shall be implemented to reduce the adverse consequences of human-induced coastal pollution disasters and hazards.

• Goal C2: Ecosystem Health and Human Uses

To ensure that pollution has minimal adverse impact on coastal ecosystems and their ability to support beneficial human uses

Objectives:

• Pollution control and waste management measures shall be implemented to ensure that discharges are kept within the assimilative capacity of coastal ecosystems.
• The discharge of pollutants and waste into coastal ecosystems shall not be allowed to reach levels that adversely affect human health, use and enjoyment of the coast.

THEME D: NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

• Goal D1: Diversity, Health and Productivity

To maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal processes and ecosystems

Objectives:

• The natural functioning of coastal processes and the health and productivity of coastal ecosystems shall be maintained.
• The biological diversity of coastal ecosystems shall be maintained.

• Goal D2: Coastal Protected Areas

To establish and effectively manage a system of protected areas to maintain the diversity of coastal ecosystems

Objectives:

• An adequate and representative system of protected areas shall be established and managed to maintain the diversity of coastal ecosystems, habitats and species.
• Coastal protected areas shall be integrated across both the land and sea, where practicable.
• The intensity of human use in protected areas shall vary according to the appropriate level of protection required to meet ecological objectives, local needs and the compatibility of activities.

• Goal D3: Renewable Resource Use

To ensure that renewable resource user practices are in accord with the regenerative capacity of coastal ecosystems

Objectives:

• An adequate understanding of the regenerative capacity of coastal ecosystems shall be developed to guide decisions about the appropriate types, scale and rate of renewable resource use.
• The use of renewable coastal resources shall be guided by the need to optimise the long-term economic viability of the activity.

• Goal D4: Non-Renewable Resource Use

To use non-renewable coastal resources in a manner that optimises the public interest and retains options for alternative and future uses

Objectives:

• Non-renewable coastal resources shall be used in a manner that retains multiple-use options in the public interest.
• Non-renewable coastal resources shall be used in a manner that retains options for potential future and sequential uses in the public interest.

• Goal D5: Rehabilitation

To rehabilitate damaged or degraded coastal ecosystems and habitats

Objectives:

• Coastal ecosystems and habitats which are substantially degraded or damaged as a result of past human activities shall be rehabilitated.
• Coastal developers shall rehabilitate degraded or damaged areas to acceptable standards.

THEME E: GOVERNANCE AND CAPACITY BUILDING

• Goal E1: Public Participation, Partnerships and Co-responsibility

To ensure meaningful public participation and partnerships between the State, the private sector and civil society in order to foster co-responsibility in coastal management

Objectives:

• There shall be meaningful public participation in all coastal planning and management efforts.
• Organs of State shall actively seek to foster a sense of co-responsibility by developing partnerships with the private sector and civil society in coastal planning and management.

• Goal E2: Capacity Building and Coastal Awareness

To build the capacity of coastal managers and interested and affected parties to promote coastal awareness and more effective coastal planning and management

Objectives:

• A coastal management awareness, education and training programme shall be developed and implemented for interested and affected parties.
• Provision shall be made to ensure that there is adequate financial support, suitably trained and experienced staff, and appropriate technical equipment for coastal planning and management.
• An effective, accessible, co-ordinated national information system shall be designed and maintained to support coastal planning and management efforts.

• Goal E3: Efficient, Effective and Co-ordinated Management

To promote an efficient, effective, co-operative, co-ordinated and integrated coastal planning and management approach

Objectives:

• A combination of regulatory and economic instruments shall be used to promote more proactive and effective self-regulation and collective responsibility.
• Coastal planning and management decision-making and approval procedures shall be clarified, speeded up and simplified.
• Institutional arrangements shall promote dialogue, co-operation, co-ordination and integration.
• Conflict shall be resolved in a collaborative problem-solving, consensus- building manner.

• Goal E4: International Responsibilities

To fulfil international and trans-boundary responsibilities, whilst retaining South Africa’s sovereignty

Objectives:

• International protocols and agreements relevant to coastal planning and management shall be fulfilled.
• Harmonious relations shall be developed with countries whose activities directly or indirectly affect the diversity, health and productivity of South Africa’s coastal ecosystems.

• Goal E5: The Process of Coastal Management

To conduct coastal planning and management activities in a manner that promotes learning through continuous research, monitoring, review and adaptation

Objectives:

• A Coastal Management Programme shall be developed, implemented and adapted through a process of continuous research, monitoring, review and adaptation.
• Coastal planning and management activities shall be strategic, focused and practically implementable.

INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS

The Green Paper proposes a number of options for institutional and legal arrangements to implement the policy. Your input is required as to the best model or combination of models, bearing in mind the varied characteristics and circumstances of our coastal regions and provinces. These suggestions should be seen as a point of departure for further discussion. Key elements of the institutional models are outlined in the table below.

Institutional Arrangements

Legal Arrangements

Two main legislative approaches are proposed to give effect to the institutional arrangements outlined above. The first approach is to use existing and pending legislation. Some key pieces of legislation are:

• The Sea Shore Act
• The National Environmental Management Bill
• The Environment Conservation Act
• Provincial legislation in terms of the Development Facilitation Act.

The alternative approach is the formulation of new coastal legislation, including the following options:

Comprehensive Coastal Management Act

This would involve passing a comprehensive Act that would govern all activities in a defined coastal area. A "super coastal agency" could be required to implement such a law. Although such an arrangement has been viewed as appropriate in a number of other countries, its practicality for the current South African context is seriously questioned and it is likely to enjoy little support amongst Governmental decision-makers.

A Framework Coastal Management Act

The most recent example of a Framework Act is the proposed National Environmental Management Bill. Such an approach focuses on the development of norms to govern the actions of various role-players. A Framework Coastal Management Act could be built, at least in part, around the Sea Shore Act. It could more clearly delineate the respective roles and responsibilities of national, provincial and local spheres of Government with respect to coastal areas, which at present are confusing and contradictory. Such an Act could specify coastal principles and require coastal provinces to formulate their own coastal management acts.

Provincial Coastal Management Acts with or without a National Framework Act

Coastal Provinces could create Provincial Coastal Management Acts to reflect their specific management requirements for the coast. These Acts could be created with or without a national Framework Coastal Management Act.

Ensure that other national legislation is more responsive to coastal concerns

Specific coastal principles, focus or actions could be added to various national and provincial legislation and policies. Examples include Development Tribunals in terms of the Development Facilitation Act, the National Environmental Management Bill, the new Water Act and the Planning and Development Bills of the various provinces.

KEY QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION

The purpose of this Green Paper is to stimulate discussion and debate about the most appropriate approach for managing our coast. Your feedback is essential to the further development of the policy. In particular, feedback is needed on how these proposals address your particular circumstances and responsibilities. This section outlines some of the key questions that should guide your feedback on the document:

1. Is the proposed focus on sustainable coastal development an appropriate one?
2. Do the proposed vision, principles, goals and objectives provide appropriate direction for developing and implementing a new Coastal Policy?
3. Is the proposal to define the coast as the broad interface between land and sea, with specific boundaries for different management purposes, an appropriate one?
4. Is the proposed policy approach, based on inclusive and facilitative coastal management with appropriate enforcement measures, more appropriate than the past regulatory or prescriptive approach?
5. How can public-private partnerships and meaningful public participation in coastal management be promoted?
6. Which option or combination of institutional arrangements (see models A, B and C) is likely to be most appropriate, realistic and effective?
7. Should new coastal legislation be put in place to implement the policy, or should an attempt be made to influence other policy and legislation?
8. How best can coastal management be funded, for example, through local, provincial and national Government budgets, assistance from the private sector and external funding?
9. What mechanisms should be put in place for monitoring, evaluation, review and readjustment of the Coastal Policy and its implementation?
10. How can awareness of coastal issues and capacity for coastal management be built?
11. Which are the priority issues for a new Coastal Policy to address?

Introduction

Why a Coastal Policy?

The first chapter provides an introduction to this Green Paper. It provides an overview of the following topics:

• Our coast, our future
• What is sustainable coastal development?
• What is public policy?
• The need for proactive guidance from Government.

Our coast has immense value to the people of South Africa. It is beautiful and productive. It is a special national heritage. But few people appreciate the incredible opportunities our coast offers to improve the well-being of current and future generations. The coast provides:

• Goods and services essential to meeting basic needs and improving the quality of life of millions of South Africans. It provides food, a place to live, work and relax, and a gateway to the world. The total value of these goods and services is estimated to be about R179 billion annually.
• Economic opportunities for improving South Africa’s development prospects, particularly for regions marginalised under the apartheid system.

Maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of our coast is central to realising and sustaining these economic and social benefits. Doing so requires an understanding of the coastal system. Our coast is:

• A complex natural system. It is a place of many interactions. It is the meeting place of the land and sea – where freshwater and seawater mix. It is a place of high energy and change – where tides, currents, winds and waves shape and reshape the shoreline. It is a place rich in landforms – reefs, beaches, dunes, rocky headlands, rivers and wetlands. It is a place of diverse life-forms – of seals, turtles, dolphins, fish, seabirds and a range of coastal plants, all of which make up varied ecosystems. It is rich in natural resources.
• A national heritage, which must be carefully managed. It is a public asset that supports a variety of human activities (see Figure 1). It is subject to intense and growing demands. But coastal resources are finite, and vulnerable to over-use and degradation. The coast can also be an unforgiving place, in which inappropriate decisions can expose human life and property to high risks. It nonetheless offers enormous opportunities for future development.

A radical departure from current coastal management efforts is required if South Africans are to realise and sustain the goods and services and development opportunities that the coast provides. This is not a simple task. But given the potential, it is a task well worth undertaking. There is a need to promote:

• A more co-ordinated and integrated coastal management approach. Different human uses of coastal resources are inter-dependent. These uses affect each other and the overall benefits that can be gained from the coast. Co-ordinated and integrated management is needed to ensure that the positive benefits of different human uses are realised in the interests of all South Africans. Our coast should therefore be managed in an holistic way as a system, not as a range of distinct sectors. Coastal management should also take a long-term view.
• More efficient, effective and co-operative governance, based on partnerships between Government, civil society and the private sector. Current legal and institutional arrangements for coastal management are complicated and fragmented. Coastal management capacity needs to be built to achieve the developmental potential of the coast. Proactive guidance is needed from Government to promote a visionary, practical and focused management process that fosters self-regulation and shared responsibility for our special coastal heritage.

Our generation must articulate a vision for the coast and establish the institutional and legal arrangements that will enable us to chart a course of sustainable coastal development. A Coastal Policy is needed to chart this course, to lead us into the 21^st century.

The next section explores what is meant by the phrase "sustainable coastal development".

WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE COASTAL DEVELOPMENT?

Broadly defined, the phrase sustainable development means: meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Though the concept of sustainable development is the subject of academic debate, it is widely seen as an important goal for public policy in the international and local context. Given this fact, and based on input from a wide range of interested and affected parties, including leaders in the field of coastal management in South Africa, the proposed theme and focus for this Coastal Policy is sustainable coastal development. The term is used to convey the following meaning:

• Development is central to meeting basic needs and improving the quality of life of all South Africans. Development in this broad sense relates to economic concerns, such as decreasing poverty and promoting investment, employment and wealth creation, and to social concerns such as education, community relations and empowerment.
• Sustainable means enduring or long-lasting. Coastal ecosystems provide the foundation for coastal development. To be sustainable, the nature and scale of coastal development must not exceed the capacity of coastal ecosystems to support human activities.
• Sustainable coastal development draws attention to the complex inter-connections between the biophysical, economic, cultural, social and political components that make up the coastal system. It draws attention to the "systems" character of coastal management, and highlights the complex inter-connections between the human and natural systems of the coast. It also draws attention to the important issue of equity within and between generations, and to the relationships between humans and other species. The concept focuses attention on the inter-connections between ecological integrity, basic needs and equity, as well as the relationship between population growth, wealth and poverty. It highlights the challenge of decision-making under conditions of uncertainty and makes explicit the linkage between science and public policy.

Sustainable coastal development should not, however, be thought of as an "end state". Rather, it is an ideal towards which all South Africans should strive. A policy promoting sustainable coastal development means much more than simply maintaining the status quo. It is neither a "green" policy nor a "development at any cost" policy. Rather, it aims to promote the economic and social benefits linked to coastal ecosystems, in the interests of all South Africans.

In summary, sustainable coastal development aims to enhance the capacity of current and future generations to realise their human potential, within the context of maintaining diverse, healthy and productive coastal ecosystems, in a manner that minimises harm to other life-forms.

Public policy is needed to work towards the ideal of sustainable coastal development. The next section outlines the nature of public policy.

WHAT IS PUBLIC POLICY?

Simply put, public policy is a deliberate course of action, based on publicly held values. There are three main components to this definition: Firstly, "deliberate" implies a point of departure (what is the concern or issue for which policy is needed?) and an outcome (what end result is desired?). Secondly, "course of action" implies action (what needs to be done?) and actors (who needs to do it?). Thirdly, public values are central to the process of policy formulation and implementation.

Public policy should therefore:

• Address issues of public concern
• Be based upon accepted, publicly held values
• Define a vision, principles, goals and objectives
• Specify the institutional arrangements needed to achieve the desired outcome.

A public policy is the framework for helping society move from a point of departure (i.e., coastal issues of public concern) toward a common destination (i.e., a shared vision of the future of our coast).

Coastal issues Þ Public Policy gets us to Þ Shared Vision

Formulating and implementing a public policy aimed at realising the ideal of sustainable coastal development requires proactive guidance from Government.

THE NEED FOR PROACTIVE GUIDANCE FROM GOVERNMENT

Harnessing and sustaining the development potential of our coast will require a significant change in thinking about how to plan and manage the development process. To facilitate this change, proactive policy guidance is required from Government to assist both the public and private sectors to achieve long-term, economically efficient, socially equitable and ecologically sound coastal development.

A proactive Coastal Policy is needed to promote harmony between sectoral policies, to strengthen institutional arrangements, to promote co-ordination and integration of plans and investment strategies, and to strengthen the human resource base for coastal management. A Coastal Policy is the most effective means for Government to provide leadership and guidance for sustainable coastal development. Such a policy will make it possible to, among other things:

• Maintain the diversity, health and productivity of our coast
• Retain the aesthetic, cultural, educational, scientific and spiritual value of our coast
• Proactively identify and optimise economic development opportunities
• Distribute the benefits from sustainable coastal development
• Enhance food security
• Create new employment opportunities
• Expand, diversify and create a more robust economy
• Make more effective use of underdeveloped resources
• Improve coastal planning and management practices.

It is vital for the Government to assume a positive and proactive leadership role in:

• Raising coastal education and awareness among different economic sectors about their common dependence on maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems.
• Promoting co-operative governance and public-private partnerships, by demonstrating that it is in the interest of public organisations and other stakeholders to work together to maintain the functions of coastal ecosystems, as a means of ensuring the continuous supply of coastal services.
• Promoting co-ordinated and integrated planning and management, so that there is a tangible shift away from sectoral approaches, where the emphasis is placed on maximising single purpose and exclusive use of areas and resources, towards maintaining the functions that generate the goods and services that sustain the coastal economy.
• Optimising benefits through multiple use of coastal resources, by integrating the policies, plans and management strategies of different economic activities.
• Promoting sustainable coastal development, by raising standards of development to promote long-term, economically efficient, socially equitable and ecologically sound coastal development.

The benefits derived from the adoption of an holistic but strategic Coastal Policy, which addresses the needs and aspirations of the South African people, will far outweigh the difficulties and costs involved in its formulation and implementation. The result will be lasting economic, social and ecological benefits. It will also lead to additional support for related initiatives aimed at developing more equitable and sustainable forms of national, provincial and local development.

In order to prepare a Coastal Policy that promotes sustainable coastal development, it is essential to understand the nature of the coast, its value, and the nature of coastal management. Part A of this document explores these topics. It is also imperative to understand the characteristics of South Africa’s coast, and to reflect on the issues of concern to coastal communities and interested and affected parties. Part B provides an overview of these topics.

Section A

Managing the Coast

Chapter 1

What is the Coast?

This chapter explores the nature of the coast and answers the following two questions:

• What are the boundaries of our coast?
• What are the components of our coast?

INTRODUCTION

In order to formulate a Coastal Policy, a common understanding of the coastal system needs to be developed. In particular, its boundaries need to be defined and the components of the coastal system identified.

WHAT ARE THE BOUNDARIES OF OUR COAST?

In essence, our coast is made up of the land that is affected by being near to the sea and the sea that is affected by being near to the land. Our coast is thus a distinct but limited spatial area that gets its character mainly from the direct interaction between land and sea. Surrounding this area of direct interaction are areas of indirect influence, extending from inland mountain catchment areas to the Exclusive Economic Zone and beyond. Our coast is thus an area with a landward and a seaward boundary that includes:

• Coastal waters, which extend from the low water mark into the sea, up to the point where it is no longer influenced by land and associated activities.
• The coastline or sea-shore, which is the area between the low and high water marks.
• Coastlands, which are inland areas above the high water mark that have an influence on, or are influenced by coastal waters.

Defining coastal boundaries is a challenge faced by all countries developing and implementing coastal management programmes. Only a few countries define coastal boundaries uniformly throughout the nation (see Table 1). Instead, national coastal policies often provide broad guidelines under which provinces and districts define specific coastal boundaries, depending on their management goals. For example, regulatory programmes usually define a narrow coastal zone within which to apply permit procedures, and a larger area for planning purposes. It is generally accepted that multiple definitions of the coast should be used to fulfil different tasks, at different spatial and time scales.

Table 1: Landward and Seaward Boundaries

In South Africa, a range of boundaries is applicable to coastal management. For example, in the mid-1980s, an effort was made to introduce a nation-wide permitting process for development proposals within 1 000 metres of the high water mark. This effort was subsequently withdrawn because it proved to be impractical and ineffective. The Sea Shore Act states that the State President "owns" the sea within territorial waters and the sea-shore (between the low and high water marks) on behalf of the people of South Africa. A number of other boundary definitions, prescribed in various conventions, laws, policies and management practices, are highlighted in Figure 2.

One of the major challenges faced in coastal management relates to the overlap between administrative boundaries (e.g., local authority jurisdictions) and legislative boundaries (e.g., the Sea Shore Act). This overlap is made worse by the fact that such boundaries do not coincide with those of coastal ecosystems. For example, fish do not stay within national and provincial borders, and inland activities affect water quality in rivers that flow into estuaries and out to sea.

The current trend is to manage the coast on the basis of "issue-by-issue" boundary definitions. So the boundaries will change, depending on what the actual issue is. For example, the boundary relevant to managing mussel harvesting is narrow, mostly in the inter-tidal area. Maintaining water quality in an estuary, however, requires management of an area from an inland mountain catchment down to the sea. Controlling development in sensitive dune areas may require permit approval based on a defined "set-back" line, say 1 000m from the high water mark. These examples illustrate how the relevant management areas and associated boundaries vary depending on the nature of the issues.

For the purposes of this Green Paper, the boundaries of the coast are seen to extend as far landwards, and as far seawards, as is necessary for effective coastal management. The final Coastal Policy will need to provide clarity on how the coast should be defined for dealing with different issues.

People are attracted to our coast because of the many different opportunities it offers through its rich natural resources, beauty and economic potential. Realising and sustaining these benefits and opportunities requires us to understand and manage the coast as a complex, dynamic and inter-connected system. Our coast can be thought of as:

• An economic place, where a range of commercial, recreational and subsistence activities take place, and which offers tremendous potential for future economic development.
• A social place, where people from diverse cultures meet, a place for enjoyment and relaxation, a place of spiritual value and peace. It is an important link between the people of South Africa and the rest of the world.
• A biophysical place, where land, sea and air meet and inter-connect, and where reefs, beaches, dunes, rocky headlands and wetlands support a rich collection of distinctly coastal plants and animals.

How do these components of the coast relate to one another? Simply put, most of the social and economic components of the coastal system are dependent on maintaining the diversity, health and productivity of the biophysical component. Figure 3 outlines these components of the coast.

The coast can also be thought of in terms of the range of benefits it provides to human users. Coastal processes and ecosystems (including the flows of energy, materials, nutrients and water that sustain coastal ecosystems) generate a range of goods and services (including food, shelter, property with sea-views and protection from storms). These goods and services provide direct and indirect benefits to human users who live, work and relax at the coast.

Coastal resources can be defined as natural and human-produced goods and services that are either dependent on the coast for their existence or whose value is considerably enhanced by their location at the coast. For example, a beachfront holiday resort is located at the coast. This location is valuable because visitors enjoy benefits from easy access to the beach. Activities in the area around such a resort can affect these benefits.

Activities far out to sea, literally out of sight of land, such as an oil-spill disaster, can also affect these benefits. Activities far inland, out of sight of the sea, such as poor farming practices in a mountain catchment area, can result in silted rivers and damaged river mouths.

Our coast supports multiple forms of use by many different users. Different user groups can affect each other directly. For example, surfers, bathers and shore anglers may compete for space on the beach and in the surf zone.

Coastal users can also affect one another indirectly through their impact on the ability of coastal ecosystems to sustain the flow of goods and services. For example, a bridge across a river that restricts water flow may alter the ability of an estuary to function effectively as a nursery for marine fish, thereby negatively affecting fish stocks and commercial fishing industries.

It is vital to recognise that human activities impact on coastal processes and ecosystems and consequently affect the flow of goods and services. To sustain the flow of goods and services, the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems must be maintained. All components of the coast — biophysical, social and economic — must be managed on a co-ordinated and integrated basis. The coast must be managed as a system.

The Coastal System

The coastal system can be divided into the following interlinked components:

• Physical processes include major energy, material, water and nutrient flows. These include the movement of nutrients from the deep ocean to shallower waters accessible to fish, the input of nutrients from rivers and estuaries into the sea, and the flow of the sun’s energy that is taken up by plants which animals might eat.
• Ecosystems are systems of plants and animals interacting with each other and with the non-living components of their environment. Coastal ecosystems, such as estuaries and coastal wetlands, beaches, dunes and coastal forests, reflect geographical differences in the interaction of physical processes and plants and animals.
• Functions are built-in ecosystem features that are either essential to the health and productivity of coastal ecosystems, or support other ecosystems and maintain the flow of goods and services that sustains human activities. For example, coastal waters can absorb wastes, wetlands can purify water and coastal vegetation can help retain soil.
• Goods and services are generated by ecosystem functions. Goods (such as fish, oil, gas and minerals) and services (such as absorption of human waste, natural defence against storm and waves, recreational opportunities and transportation) have an economic value.
• Users are the people who actually benefit from the goods and services, for example the diamond mining industry, artisanal fishers, coastal residents and surfers.

These components of the coastal system do not exist in isolation from each other. Physical processes interact with plants and animals to form distinct ecosystems, which fulfil various functions and provides goods and services to other users. User activities affect the ability of coastal ecosystems to continue providing goods and services to other users. It is for this reason that the conflict often arises. Consequently, the coast must be managed as a system if we are to realise and sustain the tremendous benefits and development opportunities it provides.

This chapter has examined the nature of the coast – its boundaries and main components. The next chapter explores the value of the goods and services provided by coastal ecosystems.

Chapter 2

What is the Value of our Coast?

This chapter provides an estimate of the value of coastal goods and services. It explores the following topics:

• The supply of coastal services
• The value of our coastal services
• The demand for coastal services
• Realising coastal benefits.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter summarises the benefits provided by the coast and attempts to place a monetary value on the services provided by coastal ecosystems.

Since many ecosystem services are not bought and sold in commercial markets, and are not given monetary values like other economic services and manufactured capital, they are often ignored in decision-making.

The purpose of this valuation is to provide a conservative estimate of the possible order of magnitude of the value of coastal services, in a form that can be compared with other, more familiar monetary values. Please note that the values presented here are informed but speculative estimates. Such estimates are strongly contested by some people.

At the very least, this valuation highlights the importance of coastal services to the South African economy, and draws attention to the enormous benefits South Africans derive from coastal ecosystems. The obvious and overwhelming conclusion drawn from this valuation is that coastal management efforts are needed to sustain the flow of coastal services in the interests of current and future generations.

Calculating the Value of our Coastal Services

Boundary definition: For the purpose of this valuation, the coast is defined as the region 60 km from the high water mark to the continental shelf (see Figure 2).

Available statistics: As far as possible, local statistics were used in this valuation. There are, however, many gaps in available knowledge, particularly with regard to the value of coastal services that are not bought or sold. In a number of such instances, average estimates based on international data were used to provide a more complete picture.

A conservative estimate: The valuation is a conservative estimate, because large gaps in available information made it impossible to value numerous coastal ecosystem services.

Illustrative purpose: Many of the values are speculative and serve primarily to illustrate the possible order of magnitude of the value of South Africa’s coastal services.

The next section explores the services that the coast provides.

THE SUPPLY OF COASTAL SERVICES

Our coast is made up of a wide variety of ecosystems. They are the "factories" providing benefits to coastal communities and South Africa as a whole. A distinction can be made between:

• Direct benefits. These are goods that are consumed, such as fish, or that are used, such as kelp used in the industrial production of fertilisers. Other direct benefits include coastal tourism, diamond and titanium mining and timber harvesting.
• Indirect benefits. These include the waste absorbing and water purification services provided by coastal ecosystems. These services provide an indirect but substantial cost saving to coastal communities.

The next section provides an estimate of the value of the direct and indirect benefits provided by coastal services.

THE VALUE OF OUR COASTAL SERVICES

Human activities along the coast are sustained by the services provided by coastal ecosystems. The value of coastal ecosystems in meeting basic needs and improving the welfare of South Africans is enormous.

The values presented here do not reflect the intangible benefits many people derive from the coast as a place of spiritual significance, for renewal, peace and relaxation. In addition, the coast provides many educational, scientific and cultural services, the financial value of which is not easy to estimate. But there is general recognition that our coast plays an important role in providing such services and that we would be much poorer without them.

The Total Value of our Coastal Services

The total value of coastal ecosystem services is conservatively estimated to be about R179 billion per year, which is equivalent to about 37% of South Africa’s Gross Domestic Product (R480 billion). This amount is made up of services in the following areas:

• From 60km inland to the high water mark, the estimated value is R28 billion per year
• From the high water mark to the continental shelf, this value is R151 billion per year.

These high figures show that the benefits gained from the coast make an enormous contribution to the people of South Africa, and provide the cornerstone for the economic development and well-being of coastal communities.

The Value of Direct Benefits

The value of direct benefits provided by coastal ecosystems is estimated to be at least R44 billion per year, as outlined in Table 2.

The Value of Indirect Benefits

The value of indirect benefits provided by coastal ecosystems is estimated to be at least R134 billion per year, as outlined in Table 3.

Table 2: Estimated Value of Direct Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems

Table 3: Estimated Value of Indirect Benefits Provided by Coastal Ecosystems

This section has looked at the value of services provided by coastal ecosystems. The next section goes on to explore the demand for these services.

THE DEMAND FOR COASTAL SERVICES

Key characteristics of the South African coast include its relatively high concentration of population, particularly on the east coast, its expanding coastal cities and the diversity of economic activities. The demand for coastal services is already intense and is growing rapidly.

In coastal cities there is high demand for a wide range of coastal services, especially where industry, high-density residential areas, commercial centres and harbours are located.

In less developed coastal regions, there is a relatively lower level of demand for a much narrower range of services. But the pressure on particular resources can be very intense in some rural areas, such as subsistence harvesting of mussels or property development around estuaries.

In both the urban and rural context, many different services are frequently demanded from the same coastal ecosystem. The intensity and diversity of demands placed on coastal ecosystems will continue to increase as the South African population grows and more people move to the coast. The challenge is to ensure that we optimise these benefits, both now and into the future.

REALISING COASTAL BENEFITS

Coastal ecosystems are capable of sustaining more than one economic activity at the same time. For example, Cape Town’s Victoria & Alfred Waterfront supports an active port, recreational boating, and a range of shopping and recreational activities for local and international visitors. Multiple use of coastal ecosystems can provide more benefits than a single use, which may exclude other sustainable activities. We must maintain the diversity, health and productivity of coastal ecosystems if we are to realise and sustain these benefits. If we effectively manage coastal ecosystems, our coast will provide the foundation for meeting basic needs and improving the quality of life of millions of South Africans.

The last two chapters have considered the nature of the coast and explored the value of coastal services. The next chapter focuses on the subject of coastal management.