In any country, all aspects of human development and human security relate to, and depend on, the availability and sustainability of reliable access to energy sources. Whether it is the health, agricultural, education, or industrial industries, all need power to bring about development. African countries have made use of various forms of power generation and acquisition, ranging from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal to the more green initiatives, including solar power, wind power, and wind turbines. However, nuclear power is emerging as a possibility to assist Africa in its pursuit of development.

Part I of this paper analyses Africa’s energy situation and focuses on the continent’s pursuit of nuclear power by providing a short overview of the status of nuclear energy on the continent. Part II (available here) explores the constraints and possibilities for nuclear power as a reliable energy source for the continent.

Energy in Africa

According to the World Energy Council, three sustainable objectives have been recognised in order for the world to have enough energy.⁽²⁾ They refer to it as the “three A’s:” accessibility, availability, and acceptability. Accessibility refers to the minimum level of commercial energy services that should be available at reasonable and sustainable prices. In other words, prices should be low enough to meet the needs of the poor, but be high enough to support the conservation and development of the energy services. The ultimate goal here is to give access to the two billion people who currently do not have access to reliable commercial energy services in Africa.

Secondly, availability is the long-term endurance of energy services supply, together with the short-term quality of services. As we have seen, economic development has been disrupted by energy shortages worldwide. Therefore, a “well diversified portfolio of domestic or imported traded fuels and energy services is required.”⁽³⁾ The main objective here is that all energy sources should be pursued.

Thirdly, acceptability refers to public opinion regarding environmental issues such as land degradation, soil acidification, and deforestation – all at a regional level – pollution; greenhouse gas emissions and climate change; nuclear security, safety, waste management and proliferation; as well as the possible negative impact of large-scale developments. Here, the main objective is the development of clean technologies and their transference to developing nations.⁽⁴⁾

When Africa is taken into account, the three A’s can be analysed as follows: Africa is still far from achieving the goals as set out by the World Energy Council. There are three noteworthy factors: the lack of investment in infrastructure, the lack of capacity in institutional capabilities, and the low capacity of the private sector to provide energy services where (many) governments cannot. Furthermore, the rapid fluctuations in energy prices and embryonic markets are weighing heavily on economies and the daily lives of the peoples of Africa.

If energy services are made affordable, accessible, and available in Africa, economic development could take place in the continent. Regional cooperation and integration as well as international cooperation is needed for Africa to rid itself from the burden poverty brings. However, the reality is that only one-third of the continent’s population actually has access to modern energy services. Higher energy supplies are also concentrated in northern Africa and southern African countries, which leave the greater part of the continent without access to energy services. When the availability of energy services is taken into account, it is clear that oil dominates the continent’s energy mix. Cleaner fossil fuels, hydropower, and solar power are being explored as realistic options for the provision of secure energy services. Furthermore, nuclear power development has received attention, seeing that the continent’s uranium deposits – as the main fuel for nuclear power –are one of the largest in the world.⁽⁵⁾

Carbon emissions concerning energy comes mostly from thermal-power generation, road transportation, and the burning of biomass and is greatly concentrated in southern and northern Africa. All in all, Africa plays a small role in the contribution to global warming. The continent boasts with considerable hydropower resources and modern renewable energies such as wind, solar, and biomass - all of which are recognised as viable alternatives to traditional energy services.

Owing to Africa’s plentiful uranium deposits, development of nuclear power has been recognised as a feasible option and possible solution to the continent’s power generation challenges. Even though the West has strategically pushed toward the development of wind and solar power, rather than toward the development of nuclear plants within Africa (so as to share in the riches of Africa), African leaders are increasingly considering nuclear power as a viable option to increase electricity supply and contribute to economic development.⁽⁶⁾ Amongst the African countries, several are showing interest in the development of a nuclear power industry. These include Algeria, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Tunisia and Uganda.⁽⁷⁾

Current power sources and generation in Africa

Within Africa, the uneven regional distribution of energy resources has contributed to the continent’s economic underperformance. Even where energy is readily available, an absence of resource sharing amongst African nations has also hindered the continent in its pursuit to development. Only a significant few of the African countries have large energy potential. Of all the energy resources found on the continent, hydropower is the source most evenly spread (even though the highest concentration is found in the Congo River); fossil fuels such as oil and gas are found in Algeria, Libya and Nigeria; the highest concentration of coal is in southern Africa; and eastern Africa boasts with geothermal potential. Furthermore, 80% of Africa’s electricity generating capacity lies in the hands of South Africa and the Maghreb countries (Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia). This, together with the fact that trans-African resource sharing does not take place, contributes to the scarce energy resources in Africa, the hiking of energy prices, and the underdevelopment of the continent as a whole.⁽⁸⁾

Nuclear power in Africa and the countries’ nuclear power intentions

South Africa is the only country in Africa that is currently generating nuclear power. The country boasts with the only two nuclear reactors on the continent, which have been active since 1984 and 1985 respectively. The reactors, both owned by the parastatal company Eskom and located in Koeberg, in the Western Cape province, are responsible for producing 5% of South Africa’s electricity supply. Eskom, overall, supplies 95% of South Africa’s electricity and 45% of Africa’s electricity. Thus, it is clear that there is pressure on South Africa to perform and provide electricity. The South African Government has shown commitment to further develop the country’s nuclear power industry, but financial constraints have curtailed efforts.⁽⁹⁾

Amongst the other countries pursuing nuclear power, various efforts to embrace nuclear power development have been witnessed. Egypt, for example, has signed a proposal to develop four nuclear power plants by 2025, the first of these is proposed to be constructed in 2019. Although a legislative framework to regulate nuclear installations and activities has been signed into law, commitment amongst the relevant actors is still pending.

Tunisia, as one of the countries that are considered more likely to generate nuclear power in the future, has signed a cooperative agreement with France for the development of their own nuclear power plants. France (and later also Russia) also approached Libya to form a partnership.

Algeria, as another likely country to generate nuclear power, signed an agreement with Russia to investigate the possibility of nuclear power development. In addition to this agreement, Algeria also signed cooperative agreements with Argentina, China, France, and the United States of America (USA). In 2009, the Algerian Government announced plans to have the first nuclear power plant running by 2020.

The Moroccan Government has also initiated plans to build a nuclear power plant during 2016 and 2017. The country has signed agreements with China and France. Moreover, Sudan, amidst its civil unrest, embarked on the nuclear journey in 2010 and aims to build a research reactor by 2020.

Nigeria, as the most populated country in Africa, is also considering nuclear power development. The Government has approved a framework for nuclear power programmes with the envisaged plant to be active in 2020. The country has engaged in talks for the exchange in nuclear expertise with Iran and signed agreements with Russia, China, and the USA.

Ghana, Uganda, and Senegal also announced their interests in nuclear power development. France has offered technical assistance to the latter. Kenya is eager to start construction in 2017 with the hope of utilising their power plant by 2020. They are, however, still in search of a partner to assist them in this endeavour.

Finally Namibia, boasting with two significant uranium mines, has shown strong support for nuclear power development. The country has signed a partnership with Russia. Even though policy programmes articulate that the country wants to supply its own nuclear power by 2018, little progress has been witnessed.⁽¹⁰⁾

It is clear that countries have acted enthusiastically about the development of a nuclear power industry in Africa, but Governments need to create the environment for investment in nuclear power. This is seen as a major obstacle owing to the fact that African countries lack expertise, capital, and experience to kick-start initiatives. These Governments, as the owners of the nuclear power initiatives, therefore, have a long walk before the nuclear light at the end of the dark African tunnel is lit.⁽¹¹⁾

Conclusion

The African continent has many energy resources. Amongst these, nuclear power has been identified as a viable option for the continent’s future. It is true that the continent boasts with an abundance of uranium, but there are various constraints (which are explored in part II of this paper, available here) that curtail development efforts.

NOTES:

(1) Contact Lize-Marié Smuts and Jo-Ansie van Wyk through Consultancy Africa Intelligence’s Conflict and Terrorism Unit (conflict.terrorism@consultancyafrica.com).
(2) ‘Energy Policy Scenarios to 2050: What are the three A’s?’, World Energy Council, 2 February 2011, http://www.worldenergy.org.
(3) Ibid.
(4) Ibid.
(5) ‘Energy Policy Scenarios to 2050: Africa’, World Energy Council, 16 January 2011, http://www.worldenergy.org.
(6) Ibid.
(7) Hinshaw, D., ‘Africa looks to nuclear power’, Christian Science Monitor, 2010, http://www.csmonitor.com.
(8) Ibid.
(9) ‘Nuclear power in South Africa’, World Nuclear Association, 2 February 2011, http://www.world-nuclear.org.
(10) ‘Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries’, World Nuclear Association, 2 February 2011, http://www.world-nuclear.org.
(11) ‘Over 30 countries aspire for nuclear power’, Global Geopolitics & Political Economy, 8 September 2010, http://globalgeopolitics.net.

Written by Lize-Marié Smuts and Jo-Ansie van Wyk ⁽¹⁾